From theory to surgery

Pirogov chose surgery as his specialty, but during his four years at Moscow University he was present at only two operations and did not perform any himself. He practically started his study as a surgeon at the University of Dorpat.

His doctor’s thesis (1832) was dedicated to the ligation of the ventral aorta. In this important work Pirogov tried not only to improve the technical procedure of operation but also to explain how the body reacts to it.

In 1847 he developed a theory of the action and use of anaesthetic and, before using it on a patient, tested it on himself. From July to November that year he was active as a surgeon in the field hospitals in Caucasus and introduced the use of anaesthetic through the rectum. Pirogov also originated the intravenous administration of ether as an anaesthetic. He was the first surgeon to use anaesthesia in a field operation.

From 1848 he conducted an important investigation of cholera, based on almost 800 sections.

Pirogov’s work during the Crimean War is of such importance that he is considered to be the founder of field surgery. Pirogov was the first to use the plaster cast in field conditions. He conceived the technique of plaster casting in 1851 while observing the work of a sculptor.

At that time Pirogov also developed a new method for amputation of the foot, known as the “ Pirogov’s amputation ”.

Pirogov was the first doctor in Russia who used nurses to care for the wounded in the field, and organized the training of nurses.

In 1851-1854 Pirogov created his famous anatomical atlas, Topographical anatomy of the human body (“Anatomia topographica, sedionibus per corpus humanum”).

Thanks to the efforts of N. I. Pirogov surgery was placed on a scientific basis.

POST-TEXT ASSIGNMENTS

Exercise 7. Answer the questions:

1. Did Pirogov get sufficient skills as a practical surgeon during his studies at Moscow University?

2. What was his doctor’s thesis dedicated to?

3. Why is Pirogov considered to be the father of field surgery?

4. What did Pirogov test on himself before using on a patient?

5. What did Pirogov develop while observing the work of a sculptor?

6. What disease did Pirogov investigate?

7. When did Pirogov create his famous anatomical atlas?

Exercise 8. Use verbs in brackets in correct forms. Translate the sentences:

1. N.I.Pirogov (to be) a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of sciences (1847).

2. Pirogov (to be) a heavy smoker and (to die) of cancer.

3. To prevent wound infection Pirogov (to use) substances which (to be) still in use today.

4. Pirogov (to treat) Giuseppe Garibaldi for an injury to his foot.

5. In 1840 the minister Kleinminchel (to invite) Pirogov to work in St. Petersburg.

6. Later Pirogov (to test) and (to begin) using another anaesthetic – chloroform.

7. The Pirogov Museum (to exist) in Vinnitsa now.

WHO (World Health Organization)

PRETEXT ASSIGNMENTS:

Exercise 1. Practice the pronunciation:

Sign [sain], strengthening ['streŋθ(ə)niŋ], raise [reiz], warning [wɔ:niŋ], plague [pleig], quarantine ['kwɔr(ə)nti:n], vaccine ['væksi:n], headquarter ['hed'kwɔ:tə], Geneva [dʒi'ni:və], eradicate [i'rædikeit]

Exercise 2. Topic vocabulary:

Member-state — страна-участница

to hold a conference проводить конференцию

to eradicate - искоренять

warning - предупреждение

to strengthen - усилить

to raise – поднимать

to broadcast – передавать (по радио или телевидению)

outbreak - вспышка

headquarter - штаб-квартира

staff – персонал, штат

to sign - подписать

Health authorities - руководители медицинских учреждений

Exercise 3. Form new words adding the suffixes -er, -or:

Model: to work — worker — рабочий

to operate — operator — оператор

to conduct, to research, to investigate, to do, to perform, to organise, to dream, to play, to produce.

Exercise 4. Read and translate the following words with the suffix -al:

national, regional, tropical, special, viral, technical, international.

Exercise 5. Give Russian equivalents for the following word combinations:

epidemic diseases, international standardization, health protection, health service, outbreak of the disease, infectious diseases, epidemic warning, medical and administrative staff, international quarantine measures, health workers, water supply

Exercise 6. Find substitutes for the following word combinations:

1. the establishment of conditions favourable to 1. health

health

2. liable to be communicated by infections 2. epidemic

3. normal conditions of body and mind 3. infectious

4. attacking many patients in the same region 4. plague the same time

5. a highly contagious and fatal fever 5. sanitation

Exercise 7. Read and translate the text:

WHO (WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION)

WHO was founded in 1948. In 1946 the United Nations held an International Health Conference in New York. There the Constitution of WHO was signed by 61 countries. Now- there are 150 member-states. Membership is open to all countries.

WHO activities take many forms:

— strengthening national health services,

— preparing more and better health workers,

— controlling or eradicating epidemic diseases,

— protecting mother's and child health,

— improving sanitation and water supply,

— and making all other efforts to raise health levels.

One of the main services carried out by WHO is the service of epidemic warnings. The five main world epidemics of history — plague, cholera, smallpox, typhus and yellow fever—are still a great danger in our time of fast sea and air travel.

WHO gathers information and broadcasts it daily by radio to health authorities, ports, airports and ships at sea. WHO also informs national health services about outbreaks of viral diseases such as influenza and poliomyelitis.

Besides an epidemic information WHO also provides services which are needed by all the countries, such as an international quarantine mea­sures, world health statistics, international standardization of medicines and vaccines, development of medical research and technical publication programme.

The daily work of the World Health Organization is carried out by a medical and administrative staff of about 2,400 international officers from 70 different countries. These officers are stationed at headquarters in Geneva, in Regional Offices, or with special centers working on every continent.

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