Study the steps of a scientific investigation and put the paragraphs of the following text into correct order. Be ready to summarize the information.

Передмова

Посібник «Англійська мова для професійного спілкування» призначений для студентів третього курсу хімічних напрямів підготовки (якщо англійська мова вивчається 13,5 кредитів) та студентів другого курсу (якщо англійська мова вивчається 6 кредитів) вищих навчальних закладів хімічного профілю та факультетів університетів близьких напрямів підготовки, слухачів спеціальних курсів з англійської мови, а також спеціалістів-хіміків, що самостійно вивчають мову. Посібник може бути застосований як базовий на один семестр за умови навчання 2 години на тиждень, при цьому один урок (Unit) вивчається 2 заняття.

Посібник має на меті розвинути у студентів навички та вміння самостійно читати оригінальну літературу за спеціальністю, оперативно знаходити в ній необхідну інформацію, брати участь у науковій бесіді з використанням хімічної термінології та вести ділове листування англійською мовою.

При створенні посібника автори враховували, що наукове спілкування – це вид комунікативної діяльності, яка здійснюється в усній мові та на письмі (діалоги, монологи, доповіді, презентації, ділове листування). Тому завданням посібника є:

- поглибити знання студентів зі спеціальності, оскільки тексти посібника узгоджені з матеріалом, який вивчається на профілюючих дисциплінах;

- впровадити інтегрований розвиток навичок та вмінь усіх видів мовленнєвої діяльності (аудіювання, говоріння, читання, письма, перекладу);

- забезпечити навчання творчого відношення до пройденого матеріалу (висловлення своєї думки щодо прочитаного, аналіз пройденого матеріалу, логічне обґрунтування своєї точки зору).

Посібник складається з двох частин: перша частина - п’ять уроків (Units) та додаткові тексти (Supplementarytexts), що подані для самостійного опрацювання студентами; друга частина (BusinessEnglish) – довідник з ведення документації англійською мовою, додатків (Appendices), які містять теоретичний матеріал до пройдених уроків, розшифровки аудіо матеріалів (Tapesсripts), відповідей (Keys), бібліографії 1(Bibliography1), де подані використані текстові матеріали, бібліографії 2 (Bibliography 2), що містить ілюстративний та аудіо матеріали.

Кожен урок (Unit) складається з підрозділу читання (Reading), який у свою чергу поділяється на дві частини (SectionA&SectionB),де подані тексти для ознайомлювального, вивчаючого та переглядового видів читання та завдання до них; говоріння (Speaking), який міститьзавдання наближені до реального спілкування, аудіювання (Listening), де представлені аудіо матеріали, що навчають успішно проводити презентації та письма(Writing), що дозволяє удосконалити навички ділового листування.

Передбачається, що на занятті окрім даного посібника використовуються додаткові матеріали для повторення граматики та для формування соціокультурної компетенції. Ми рекомендуємо такі підручники та довідники:

1) Карабан В. І. Переклад англійської наукової і технічної літератури. Граматичні труднощі, лексичні, термінологічні та жанрово-стилістичні проблеми. – Вінниця, Нова книга, 2004. -576 с.

2) Ільченко О. М. Англійська мова науки. Семантика, прагматика, переклад.- К.: Наукова думка, 2009. – 288 с.

3) JennyDooley, VirginiaEvansGrammarway, Express Publishing, 1999,-278p.

4)Michael Swan Practical English Grammar, Third edition, Oxford University Press, 2005, 658p.

На даному етапі навчання студенти мають рівень В1⁺за ЗагальноєвропейськимиРекомендаціям з мовноїосвіти. Передбачено проведення вступного, поточного та підсумкового тестування відповідного рівня за різними видами мовленнєвої діяльності. Тести представлені в окремому методичному посібнику.

Тексти до посібника взято з оригінальних підручників, монографій з хімії для англійських та американських вищих навчальних закладів, зокрема:

1. March J., Smith M.B. Advanced organic chemistry: reactions, mechanisms and structure. 5th Ed., New York, 2001.

2. JohCarey F., Sundberg R. Advanced Organic Chemistry. Part A. Structure and Mechanisms, 4ed., New York,2000.

3. McMurry John Organic chemistry, 7^th edition, UK, 2008. та ін..

Аудіо матеріал взято із сайту ВВС: http://www.bbc.co.uk, а також його можна прослухати на сайті НТУУ «КПІ» http://kamts1.kpi.ua/node/492.

Brief CONTENTS

Unit 1	STRUCTURE AND BONDING……………...
UNIT 2	PRINCIPLES, NOMENCLATURE & SYMBOLS……………………………………..
UNIT 3	MOLECULAR SYMMETRY………………..
UNIT 4	STEREOCHEMISTRY OF REACTIONS….
UNIT 5	RESOLUTION OF ENANTIOMERS………
SUPPLEMENTARYTEXTS
	1 PRINCIPLES OF STEREOCHEMISTRY.
	2 ENANTIOMERIC RELATIONSHIPS……
	3 DIASTEREOMERIC RELATIONSHIPS...
	4METHODS OF DETERMINING CONFIGURATION……………………………...
	5 The Cause of Optical Activity……..
	6 Molecules With More Than One Chiral (Stereogenic) Center………...
	7 Asymmetric Synthesis………………...
Business English
	WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS…………
	Formal letter…………………………..
	Informal letter or email…………
	writing a tactful advice letter
	HOW TO WRITE A REQUEST LETTER…
	COMPLAINT LETTER……………………...
	WRITING CLAIM LETTER………………..
	INQUIRY LETTER…………………………..
APPENDICES
	1 EXCLAMATIONS………………………….
	2 GENERAL CONVERSATION GAMBITS
	3THE SCHEME OF RENDERING THE TEXT…………………………………………..
	4 FLOW CHARTS……………………………
	5GRAPH……………………………………...
	6 READING AND INTERPRETING GRAPHS………………………………………
	7 PRESENTATIONS…………………………
TAPESCRIPTS	………………………………………………….
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1	…………………………………………………..
BIBLIOGRAPHY 2	………………………………………………….

UNIT 1

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

Reading

Section A

1. You are going to read three texts which are all connected with chemistry. Read the texts and be able to make intelligent guesses about:

- where the text came from.

- who the text has been written for.

- why it has been written.

Text A

What is organic chemistry? The answer is all around. The proteins that make up our hair, skin, and muscles; the nucleic acids, RNA and DNA, that control our genetic heritage; the foods we eat; the clothes we wear; and the medicines we take—all are organic chemicals.

The foundations of organic chemistry were built in the mid-eighteenth century as chemistry was evolving from an alchemist's art into a modern science. At that time, unexplainable differences were noted between sub­stances derived from living sources and those derived from minerals. Com­pounds from plants and animals were often difficult to isolate and purify. Even when pure, these compounds were difficult to work with and were more sensitive to decomposition than compounds from mineral sources. In 1770, the Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman first expressed this difference between "organic" and "inorganic" substances, and the phrase organic chemistrysoon came to mean the chemistry of compounds from living organisms.

To many chemists at the time, the only explanation for the difference in behavior between organic and inorganic compounds was that organic compounds contained a peculiar and undefinable "vital force" as a result of their coming from living sources. One consequence of the presence of this vital force, chemists believed, was that organic compounds could not be prepared and manipulated in the laboratory as could inorganic compounds.

Although the vitalistic theory was believed by many influential chem­ists, its acceptance was by no means universal, and it's doubtful that the development of organic chemistry was much delayed. As early as 1816, the theory received a heavy blow when Michel Chevreul found that soap, pre­pared by the reaction of alkali with animal fat, could be separated into several pure organic compounds, which he termed "fatty acids." Thus, for the first time, one organic substance (fat) had been converted into others (fatty acids plus glycerin) without the intervention of an outside vital force.

A little more than a decade later, the vitalistic theory suffered still further when Friedrich Wohler discovered in 1828 that it was possible to convert the "inorganic" salt ammonium cyanate into the previously known "organic" substance urea.

By the mid-nineteenth century, the weight of evidence was clearly against the vitalistic theory. In 1848, William Brande wrote in a paper that: "No definite line can be drawn between organic and inorganic chem­istry... any distinctions... must for the present be merely considered as matters of practical convenience calculated to further the progress of stu­dents." Chemistry today is unified; the same basic scientific principles that explain the simplest inorganic compounds also explain the most complex organic molecules. The only distinguishing characteristic of organic chem­icals is that all contain the element carbon.Nevertheless, the division between organic and inorganic chemistry, which began for historical rea­sons, maintains its "practical convenience...to further the progress of students."

Organic chemistry, then, is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon, which has atomic number 6, is a second-period element whose position in an abbreviated periodic table is shown in Table 1.1. Although carbon is the principal element in organic compounds, most also contain hydrogen, and many contain nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and other elements.

Why is carbon special? What is it that sets carbon apart from all other elements in the periodic table? The answers to these questions are complex but have to do with the unique ability of carbon atoms to bond together, forming long chains and rings. Carbon, alone of all elements, is able to form an immense diversity of compounds, from the simple to the staggeringly complex: from methane, containing one carbon, to DNA, which can contain hundreds of billions. Nor are all carbon compounds derived from living organisms. Chemists in the past 100 years have become extraordinarily sophisticated in their ability to synthesize new organic compounds in the laboratory. Medicines, dyes, polymers, plastics, food additives, pesticides, and a host of other substances—all are prepared in the laboratory, and all are organic chemicals. Organic chemistry is a science that touches the lives of all; its study can be a fascinating undertaking.

Text B

Think for a moment about the stuff of everyday life. We drive cars powered by gasoline or diesel fuel. We cook chicken on a grill that burns propane. We live in homes heated directly by the burning of natural gas or fuel oil, or in electrically heated homes, for which most electricity is produced by the combustion of a fossil fuel. All of these fuels are organic compounds, and they are used as fuels because their combustion reactions with oxygen to produce CO2 and H20 are highly exothermic.

The great majority of medicines used to treat everything from headaches to strokes, to control diabetes, and to combat cancer are organic compounds. Whether they are natural products derived from living plants or animals, or synthetic materials prepared in the laboratory, the products of the pharmaceutical industry are compounds of carbon.

Your favorite soft T-shirt is made of cotton; the soles of your running shoes are made of a synthetic rubber. Cotton is an organic natural fiber produced by a plant. Because of the composition, shape, and orientation of the large molecules that form cotton fibers, the material is soft and absorbent. Synthetic rubber is a polymer, manufactured from compounds of carbon and hydrogen derived from crude oil. Because of the size, shape, and orientation of the polymer molecules in synthetic rubber, the material is springy, nonabsorbent, and resistant to abrasive contact with surfaces.

Fans at a hockey game sit on molded plastic seats and watch goalies wearing helmets of impact-resistant Kevlar. We pour sodas out of plastic bottles and drink them from Styrofoam cups while eating sandwiches wrapped in plastic wrap.

Plastics, Kevlar, Styrofoam and cling wrap are made from compounds derived from crude oil. The plastic seat is strong, light, and capable of bearing considerable weight without breaking. The goalie's helmet must be light-weight and able to withstand the impact of a hockey puck moving at speeds close to 100 miles per hour. Soda bottles must resist punctures and prevent CO2 from escaping, the Styrofoam cup must be a poor conductor of heat so that beverages in it stay hot or cold, and the sandwich wrap must be flexible and prevent oxygen from reaching the sandwich. All these properties can be designed into the materials at the molecular level, because the physical properties of these materials are directly linked to their structure and composition.

Apart from our bones and teeth, and the water and electrolytes that form the basis of bodily fluids, we humans are all composed of carbon compounds. The great bulk of the food we eat is made up of carbon-containing molecules, too. Compounds of carbon are everywhere, and they are so varied in size, shape, and properties that an entire field within chemistry is devoted to their study. A knowledge of organic chemistry is fundamental and essential for a scientific understanding of fuels, foods, pharmaceutical agents, plastics, fibers, living creatures, plants, indeed almost everything we are, almost everything we need to survive, and almost everything we have produced that makes our lives easier in the modern world.

Text C

When you awoke this morning, a flood of chemicals called neurotransmitters was sent from cell to cell in your nervous system. As these chemical signals accumulated, you gradually became aware of your surroundings. Chemical signals from your nerves to your muscles propelled you out of your warm bed to prepare for your day.

For breakfast you had a glass of milk, two eggs, and buttered toast, thus providing your body with needed molecules in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. As you ran out the door, enzymes of your digestive tract were dismantling the macromolecules of your breakfast. Other enzymes in your cells were busy converting the chemical energy of food molecules into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of all cells.

As you continue through your day, thousands of biochemical reactions will keep your cells functioning optimally. Hormones and other chemical signals will regulate the conditions within your body. They will let you know if you are hungry or thirsty. If you injure yourself or come into contact with a disease-causing microorganism, chemicals in your body will signal cells to begin the necessary repair of defense processes.

Life is an organized array of large, carbon-based molecules maintained by biochemical reactions. To understand and appreciate the nature of a living being, we must understand the principles of science and chemistry as they apply to biological molecules.

Chemistryis the study of matter, its chemical and physical properties, the chemical and physical changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes. Matteris anything that has mass and occupies space. The changes that matter undergoes always involve either gain or loss of energy. Energyis the ability to do work to accomplish some change. The study of chemistry involves matter, energy, and their interrelationship. Matter and energy are at the heart of chemistry.

Chemistry is a broad area of study covering everything from the basic parts of an atom to interactions between huge biological molecules. Because of this, chemistry encompasses the following specialties. Biochemistryis the study of life at the molecular level and the processes associated with life, such as reproduction, growth, and respiration. Organic chemistry is the study of matter that is composed principally of carbon and hydrogen. Organic chemists study methods of preparing such diverse substances as plastics, drugs, solvents, and a host of industrial chemicals. Inorganic chemistryis the study of matter that consists of all of the elements other than carbon and hydrogen and their combinations. Inorganic chemists have been responsible for the development of unique substances such as semiconductors and high-temperature ceramics for industrial use. Analytical chemistryinvolves the analysis of matter to determine its composition and the quantity of each kind of matter that is present. Analytical chemists detect traces of toxic chemicals in water and air. They also develop methods to analyze human body fluids for drugs, poisons, and levels of medication. Physical chemistryis a discipline that attempts to explain the way in which matter behaves. Physical chemists develop theoretical concepts and try to prove them experimentally. This helps usto understand how chemical systems behave.

Over the last thirty years, the boundaries between the traditional sciences of chemistry and biology, mathematics, physics, and computer science have gradually faded. Medical practitioners, physicians, nurses, and medical technologists use therapies that contain elements of all these disciplines. The rapid expansion of the pharmaceutical industry is based on recognition of the relationship between the function of an organism and its basic chemical makeup. Function is a consequence of changes that chemical substances undergo. For these reasons, an understanding of basic chemical principles is essential for anyone considering a medically related career; indeed, a worker in any science related field will benefit from an understanding of the principles and applications of chemistry.

2. Decide what books the texts come from. What helped you to make up your mind? Choose from the following:

a) General, Organic, and Biochemistry;

b) Organic Chemistry;

c) Chemistry: the science in context.

3. How do these texts differ? What do they have in common?

Entitle the texts.

5. Tell what was said in the texts about:

Foundation of organic chemistry, "organic" and "inorganic" substances, vitalistic theory, chemistry today, organic chemistry, carbon, organic compounds, cotton, plastics, Kevlar, Styrofoam, chemical signals, enzymes, matter, biochemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry.

Section B

1. Modern picture of chemical bonding is the title of the text in this section. Look carefully at the title and choose the description you think is closest to the likely content of the article:

- Ionic bonds;

- Covalent bonds;

- Molecular orbital theory;

- Development of chemical bonding theory.

The first sentences of each paragraph of the text are printed below. Read the sentences to get an impression of the main ideas of the text.

a)	The simplest kind of chemical bonding is that between an electropositive element (low IE) and an electronegative element (large negative EA).
b)	We know through empirical observation that eight electrons (an octet ) in the outermost electron shell impart special stability to the inert-gas elements in Group 0: Ne (2 + 8); Ar(2 + 8 + 8); Kr (2 + 8 + 18 + 8).
c)	A simple shorthand way of indicating covalent bonds in molecules is to use what are known as Lewis structures, or electron-dot structures.
d)	The amount of energy it takes to pull an electron away from an atom is called the ionization energy (IE)of the element.
e)	Elements on the left and right sides of the periodic table form ionic bonds by gaining or losing an electron to achieve an inert-gas configuration.
f)	Lewis structures are valuable because they make electron "bookkeep­ing" possible and constantly remind us of the number of outer-shell electrons (valence electrons)involved.
g)	What is the modern picture of chemical bonding?
h)	Just as the electropositive alkali metals at the left of the periodic table have a tendency to form positiveions by losingan electron, the halogens (Group VIIA elements) at the right of the periodic table have a tendency to form negativeions by gainingan electron.

3. Which sentence could be the opening sentence of the text?

4. Think about the first sentences above and decide which you think are likely to introduce a paragraph with:

- electropositive elements;

- electron affinity;

- Kekule structures.

5. Read the text and match the first sentences with the paragraphs. For this read the missing sentences and look for ideas/topics that might link them to the paragraph. Look for words and phrases that are repeated or 'echoed' in the paragraphs or the missing sentences.

1_____________________Why do atoms bond together, and how does the quantum-mechanical view of the atom describe bonding? The whyquestion is relatively easy to answer: Atoms form bonds because the compound that results is more stable (has less energy) than the alternative arrangement of isolated atoms. Energy is always releasedwhen a chemical bond is formed. The howquestion is more difficult. To answer it, we need to know more about the properties of atoms.

2_____________________We also know that the chemistry of many elements with nearlyinert-gas con­figurations is dominated by attempts to achieve the stable inert-gas elec­tronic makeup. The alkali metals in Group I, for example, have single s electrons in their valence shells. By losing this electron, they can achieve an inert-gas configuration.

3_____________________ Alkali metals, at the far left of the periodic table, give up an electron easily, have low ionization energies, and are thus said to be electropositive. Elements at the middle and far right of the periodic table hold their electrons more tightly, give them up less readily, and therefore have higher IE's. In other words, a low IE corresponds to the ready loss of an electron, and a high IE corresponds to the difficult loss of an electron.

4______________________ By so doing, the halogens can achieve an inert-gas configuration. The measure of this tendency to gain an electron is called the electron affinity (EA).Energy is released when an electron is added to most elements, and EA's are therefore negative numbers. Elements on the right of the periodic table have a much greater tendency to add an electron than elements on the left side and are said to be elec­tronegative.Thus, the halogens release a large amount of energy when they react with an electron and have much larger negative electron affinities than the alkali metals.

5______________________ For example, when sodium metal [IE = 118 kcal/mol(494 kJ/mol)] reacts with chlorine gas [EA = -83.2 kcal/mol(-348 kJ/mol)], sodium donates an electron to chlorine forming positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions. The product, sodium chloride, is said to have ionic bonding.That is, the ions are held together purely by electrostatic attrac­tion between the two unlike charges. A similar situation exists for many other metal salts such as potassium fluoride (K⁺F), lithium bromide (Li⁺Br⁻), and so on. This picture of the ionic bond, first proposed by Walter Kossel in 1916, satisfactorily accounts for the chemistry of many inorganic compounds.

6______________________ How, though, do elements in the middle of the periodic table form bonds? Let's look at the carbon atom in methane, CH₄, as an example. Certainly the bonding in methane isn't ionic, since it would be very difficult for carbon (ls²2s²2p²) either to gain or to lose four electrons to achieve an inert-gas configuration. In fact, carbon bonds to other atoms, not by donating elec­trons, but by sharingthem. Such shared-electron bonds, first proposed in 1916 by G. N. Lewis, are called covalent bonds.The covalent bond is the most important bond in organic chemistry.

7_______________________In this method, the outer-shell electrons of an atom are represented by dots. Thus, hydrogen has one dot representing its 1s electron, carbon has four dots (2s²2p²), oxygen has six dots (2s²2p⁴), and so on. A stable molecule results whenever the inert-gas configuration is achieved for all atoms.

8_____________________ Simpler still is the use of "Kekule" struc­tures, also called line-bond structures, in which a two-electron covalent bond is indicated simply by a line drawn between atoms. Pairs of nonbonding valence electrons are often ignored when drawing line-bond structures, but you must still be mentally aware of their existence.

6. Give the definitions of the following terms:

Ionization energy, electropositive element, electron affinity, electronegative element, ionic bonding, Lewis structures, "Kekule" struc­tures.

Speaking

1. Alphabet dialogue. You are given the beginning of the sentences. Look at Appendix 1-2 and make up a dialogue without changing the order of these sentences. Speak about Molecular orbital theory and hybridization. You may use the following words and word combinations: an overlapping of atomic orbitals, to join together, arrangement of electrons, bond strength, to share the bonding electrons, bond length, bonding MO, antibonding MO, sigma bonds, principle of maximum orbital overlap, pi bond, unpaired electrons, excited-state configuration, electronic configuration, mix or hybridize, sp³hybridization, overlap head-on,sphybrid orbitals.

A- Ahh, anyway B- But C- Come to think of it D- Doesn’t that mean…? E- Errr F- Fine, but… G- Good point. H- Hmmm… I- I’d say… J- Just a minute… L- Let me see, M – Mmmmm

N – Now, as I was saying… O – Oh, but… P – Put another way… R – Right… S – So… T – Talking about…. U – Ummm V – Very interesting, but… W – Well… Y – Yes, I know but…

Look at Appendix 3 and Render the following text.

We saw in ammonia that nonbonding lone-pair electrons can occupy hybrid orbitals just as bonding electron pairs can. The same phenomenon is seen again in the structure of water, H₂0. Ground-state oxygen has the electronic configuration ls²2s²2p%2p_y2p_z, and oxygen is therefore divalent; that is, it forms two bonds.

We can imagine several hypothetical models for the bonding in water:

1. Perhaps oxygen uses two unhybridized p orbitals to overlap with hydrogen 1s orbitals. The two oxygen lone pairs would then remain in a 2s and a 2p_x orbital.

2. Perhaps oxygen undergoes sp hybridization and uses the two sp hybrid orbitals for bonding. The lone pairs would then both remain in the two unhybridized p orbitals.

3. Perhaps oxygen undergoes sp³ hybridization and uses two sp³ hybrid orbitals for bonding. The lone pairs would then occupy the remaining two sp³ orbitals.

Only the third model, the hybridization of oxygen into sp³ orbitals, allows strong bonds and maximum distance between the outer-shell electrons. The oxygen in water is therefore sp³ hybridized.

Measurements on water indicate that the oxygen doesn't have perfect sp³ hybrid orbitals; the actual H-O-H bond angle of 104.5° is somewhat less than the predicted tetrahedral angle. We can explain this bond angle difference by assuming that there is a repulsive interaction between the two lone pairs that forces them apart and thus compresses the H-O-H angle.

One final example of orbital hybridization that we'll consider is found in molecules like boron trifluoride, BF₃. Since boron has only three outer-shell electrons (ls²2s²2p_x), it can form a maximum of three bonds. Even though we can promote a 2s electron into a 2p_y orbital and then hybridize in some manner, there is no way to complete a stable outer-shell electron octet for boron.

Since boron has no lone-pair electrons to take into account, we might predict that it will hybridize in such a way that the three В—F bonds will be as far away from one another as possible. This prediction implies sp² hybridization and a planar structure for BF₃ in which each fluorine bonds to a boron sp² orbital, with the remaining p orbital on boron left vacant. Boron trifluoride has exactly this predicted structure.

3. Read the following text. Discuss the point with your colleagues. What do you know about the methods of scientific investigation?

The Scientific Method

T he discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming is an example of the scientific method at work. Fleming was studying the growth of bacteria. One day, his experiment was ruined because colonies of mold were growing on his plates. From this failed experiment, Fleming made an observation that would change the practice of medicine: Bacterial colonies could not grow in the area around the mold colonies. Fleming hypothesized that the mold was making a chemical compound that inhibited the growth of the bacteria. He performed a series of experiments designed to test this hypothesis.

The key to the scientific method is the design of carefully controlled experiments that will either support or disprove the hypothesis. This is exactly what Fleming did.

In one experiment he used two sets of tubes containing sterile nutrient broth. To one set he added mold cells. The second set (the control tubes) remained sterile. The mold was allowed to grow for several days. Then the broth from each of the tubes (experimental and control) was passed through a filter to remove any mold cells. Next, bacteria were placed in each tube. If Fleming’s hypothesis was correct, the tubes in which the mold had grown would contain the chemical that inhibits growth, and the bacteria would not grow. On the other hand, the control tubes (which were never used to grow mold) would allow bacterial growth. This is exactly what Fleming observed.

Within a few years this antibiotic, penicillin, was being used to treat bacterial infections in patients.

Study the steps of a scientific investigation and put the paragraphs of the following text into correct order. Be ready to summarize the information.

Дата добавления: 2015-10-28