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Resource assignment
Using WBS and OBS, project managers must work with other people in their organizations to
l assign particular personnel to their projects or
l acquire additional human resources needed to staff the project.
l Project managers with strong influencing and negotiating skills are often good at getting internal people to work on their projects.
l 1 Human Resourse Executing
The organization must ensure that people are assigned to the projects that best fit their skills and the needs of the organization.
It is also important to have good procedures in place for hiring subcontractors and recruiting new employees.
It is very important to consider the needs of individuals and the organization when making recruiting and retention decisions.
1 Human Resourse Executing
Resource loading
Resource loading refers to the amount of individual resources an existing schedule requires during specific time periods.
Resource loading helps project managers develop a general understanding of the demands a project will make on the organization's resources, as well as on individual people's schedules.
Project managers often use histograms to
l depict period-by-period variations in resource loading
l show when work is being overallocated to a certain person or group.
l 1 Human Resourse Executing
Overallocation means more resources than are available are assigned to perform work at a given time.
Human Resourse Executing
You can sometimes remove or reduce overallocations by
l delaying noncritical tasks, which does not result in an overall schedule delay
l other times you will need to delay the project completion date.
l 1 Human Resourse Executing
Resource leveling
Resource leveling is a technique for resolving resource conflicts by delaying tasks.
It is a form of network analysis in which resource management concerns drive scheduling decisions (start and finish dates).
The main purpose of resource leveling is to create a smoother distribution of resource usage.
Project managers examine the network diagram for areas of slack and to identify resource conflicts.
1 Human Resourse Executing
2 Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance (Quality Executing) includes
l all activities related to satisfying the relevant quality standards for a project.
l all activities related to continuous quality improvement.
Many companies understand the importance of quality assurance and have entire departments dedicated to this area.
They have detailed processes in place to make sure their products and services conform to various quality requirements.
2 Quality Assurance
Several tools used in quality planning can also be used in quality assurance.
l Design of experiments can also help ensure and improve product quality.
l Benchmarkinggenerates ideas for quality improvements by comparing project product characteristics to those of other products within or outside the organization.
l Quality audit is a structured review of specific quality management activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve the current or future projects.
Лекция 4
IT Projects
Controlling
Controlling
1 Scope Controlling
2 Time Controlling
3 Cost Controlling
4 Team Controlling
5 Quality Conteolling
1. Scope Control
Scope control involves controlling changes to the project scope.
The goal of scope control is to
l influence the factors that cause scope changes,
l assure changes are processed according to certain procedures, and
l manage changes when they occur.
l 1. Scope Control
Main inputs to the scope control are:
l scope statement,
l WBS and WBS dictionary,
l performance reports,
l approved change requests
The ouputs of scope control include
l requested changes,
l recommended corrective action,
l updates to the
l scope statement,
l WBS and WBS dictionary,
l Organizational process assets, and
l project management plan.
l 1 Scope Control
A change in the project scope may mean:
l additional resources and your budget may not be able to afford them
l additional funds will be required if the project scope is to change.
l team morale may plummet.
2 Time Control
Project schedule control is the final process in time management.
The goal of schedule control is to know
l the status of the schedule,
l influence the factors that cause schedule changes, and
l manage changes when they occur.
l The main inputs to schedule control are
l the schedule baseline,
l performance reports,
l approved change requests, and
l the schedule management plan.
2 Time Control
The main outputs of schedule control:
l performance measurements,
l requested changes,
l recommended corrective actions,
l updates to the schedule baseline,
l activity list and activity attributes,
l project management plan, and
l organizational process assets, such as lessons-learned reports related to schedule control.
2 Time Control
Schedule control tools and techniques:
l A. Progress reports
l B. Change control system,
l C. Project management software, such as MS Project,
l D. Schedule comparison charts, such as the Tracking Gantt chart,
l E. Performance management, such as Earned Value.
2 Time Control
A. Progress reports
Create a mechanism that allows the team to report the status on assigned tasks on a regular schedule.
l Some project managers like team members to report as each milestone is reached,
l while others prefer weekly status reports on the tasks completed over the last seven days.
l 2 Time Control
B. Change control system
Is a formal, documented process that describes when and how official project documents may be changed.
It also describes the
l people authorized to make changes,
this is a formal group of people responsible for approving or rejecting changes to a project,
l paperwork required for this change, and
l tracking systems the project will use.
l 2 Time Control
Formal change
A formal change to the project plan, regardless of who’s responsible for the change,
is serious business—no matter how seemingly small or innocent.
2 Time Control
Project Change Request
l When changes are inevitable, you need a formal process to incorporate these changes into the project plan.
l This formal process begins with something called the Project Change Request form.
l It requires the requestor to not only describe the change, but also supply a reason why this change is appropriate and needed.
l Once the requestor has completed this form, the project manager can determine if the change is
l indeed needed,
l should be rejected, or
l should be delayed until the completion of the current project.
2 Time Control
Project Change Request
2 Time Control
Change Impact Statement
is a formal response from the project manager to the originator of the Project Change Request form.
l The proposed change is not approved. The change cannot be incorporated into the project scope.
l The proposed change can happen within the current timeline, with the current resources.
l The proposed change can happen with the current resources, but will require an extended timeline.
l The proposed change can happen within the current timeline, but additional resources are required.
l The proposed change can be completed, but the timeline will need to be extended and additional resources are required.
l 2 Time Control
Implementing Project Change
Changes from Internal Forces
l When delays caused internally by the project team,
the project manager can do several things to resolve the problem and keep on schedule:
l Hire additional resources to complete the project on schedule.
l Change FS (finish to start) tasks within the PND to be SS (start to start) so tasks can happen in tandem rather than in sequence.
l Reassign highly skilled resources to the critical path to speed the completion.
l Reassign tasks among the remaining project team to keep on schedule.
l Apply management reserve to lagging tasks.
l Remove a portion of lag times to take up slack within the project.
2 Time Control
Changes from External Forces
l When delays to the project are caused from external forces, such as the customer, management, or business cycles:
l the project manager must rely upon his negotiating skills to use leverage to secure additional finances, time, or both.
l If the deadline of the project cannot be moved, new resources may be required.
2 Time Control
Example: Rick’s testing of the new application is taking longer than 56 hours assigned to the task because of the discovery of a hardware conflict.
To react to this problem, analyze how additional hours will impact the following:
l Dependent tasks in the PND
l Other, nondependent tasks in the PND that Rick has been assiged to
l The critical path
l The budget
l The project completion date
l The management reserve
2 Time Control
If dependent tasks are being held up by the problem,
resolve the problem as quickly as possible.
This means doing one or more of the following:
a) Assign Additional Resources
When a task is delaying dependencies and needs additional time to be resolved, assign additional team members or consultants to the task to reduce the amount of time required.
In theory, assigning new resources to a task should reduce the amount of time required for the task to complete. In reality, this is not always the case.
2 Time Control
b) Invoke Management Reserve (project buffer)
When tasks exceed their allotted time, assign the overrun to the management reserve task.
c) Reassign the task
Reassign the task to someone more qualified in the procedure.
3 Cost Control
Project cost control includes:
l monitoring cost performance,
l ensuring that only appropriate project changes are included in a revised cost baseline, and
l Informing project stakeholders of authorized changes to the project that will affect costs.
Project cost control inputs are:
l cost baseline,
l performance reports,
l change requests, and
l Project funding requirements.
3 Cost Control
Project cost outputs are:
l project management plan updates,
l corrective action,
l revised estimates for project completion,
l requested changes, and
l updates to organizational process assets, such as lessons-learned documents.
l 3 Cost Control
Project cost control tools and techniques:
l Using software, such as MS Project, helps to assist many cost management features:
l enter budgeted costs, set a baseline, enter actuals,
l calculate variances, and
l run various cost reports.
l Change control system to define procedures for changing the cost baseline.
l Performance review meetings can be a powerful tool for helping to control project costs.
l Cost performance measurment technique, Earned Value, is a very powerful cost control technique that is unique to the field of project management.
l 3 Cost Control
Earned value (EV)
EV is a project performance measurement technique that integrates time and cost data.
Using EV enables the project manager to determine
l how well the project is meeting
l time and
l cost goals
by entering actual information and then comparing it to the baseline.
Earned value management involves calculating three values for each activity or summary activity from a project's WBS. These are: Planned value, Actual cost, and EV.
3 Cost Control
A. Planned value (PV)
Also called the budget, is that portion of the approved total cost estimate planned to be spent on an activity during a given period.
For example suppose
l a project included a summary activity of purchasing and installing a new Web server,
l according to the plan, it would take one week and cost a total of $10,000 for the labor hours, hardware, and software involved,
l The planned value (PV) for that activity that week is, therefore, $10,000.
3 Cost Control
B. Actual cost (AC)
is the total direct and indirect costs incurred in accomplishing work on an activity during a given period.
For example suppose
l it actually took two weeks and cost $20,000 to purchase and install the new Web server,
l $15,000 of these actual costs were incurred during Week 1 and $5,000 was incurred during Week 2,
l These amounts are the actual cost (AC) for the activity each week.
3 Cost Control
C. Earned value (EV = PV * RP)
is an estimate of the value of the physical work actually completed.
It is based on the original planned costs for the project or activity and the rate at which the team is completing work on the project or activity to date.
Rate of performance (RP)
is the percentage of actual work completed to the work planned at any given time during the life of the project or activity.
Example: suppose the server installation was halfway completed by the end of week 1, the rate of performance would be 50 percent.
3 Cost Control
Cost variance (CV = EV - AC)
l is the earned value minus the actual cost.
l If cost variance is a negative number, it means that performing the work cost more than planned.
l If cost variance is a positive number, it means that performing the work cost less than planned.
l Schedule variance (SV = EV - PV)
l Is the earned value minus the planned value.
l A negative schedule variance means that it took longer than planned to perform the work, and
l a positive schedule variance means that it took less time than planned to perform the work.
3 Cost Control
Cost performance index (CPI = EV / AC)
l Is the ratio of earned value to actual cost and can be used to estimate the projected cost to complete the project.
l If the cost performance index is equal to one, or 100 percent, then the planned and actual costs are equal - the costs are exactly as budgeted.
l If the cost performance index is less than one or less than 100 percent, the project is over budget.
l If the cost performance index is greater than one or more than 100 percent, the project is under budget.
l 3 Cost Control
Schedule performance index (SPI = EV / PV)
l Is the ratio of earned value to planned value and can be used to estimate the projected time to complete the project.
l If the schedule performance index of one, or 100 percent, means the project is on schedule.
l If the schedule performance index is less than one or 100 percent, the project is behind schedule.
l If the schedule performance index is greater than one or 100 percent, then the project is ahead of schedule.
l Note that in general,
l negative numbers for cost and schedule variance indicate problems in those areas.
l Negative numbers mean the project is costing more than planned or taking longer than planned.
3 Cost Control
Estimate At Completion (EAC = BAC / CPI)
l an estimate of what it will cost to complete the project.
l The cost performance index can be used to calculate EAC based on performance to date.
l BAC (Budget At Completion).
l Estimated Time to Complete (ETC = OTE / SPI)
l Similarly, the schedule performance index can be used to calculate an estimated time to complete the project.
l OTE (OriginalTime Estimate)
3 Cost Control
Earned Value Calculations for One Activity After Week 1
Planned Value (PV) 10,000
Actual Cost (AC) 15,000
Earned Value (EV) EV = PV x RP = 10,000 x 50% = 5,000
Cost Variance (CV) CV = EV – AC = 5000 – 15000 = -10,000
Schedule Variance (SV) SV = EV – PV = 5000 – 10000 = - 5,000
Cost Performance Index
(CPI) CPI = EV / AC = 5000 / 15000 = 33%
Schedule Performance
Index (SPI) SPI = EV / PV = 5000 / 10000 = 50%
Estimate at Completion
(EAC) EAC = BAC / CPl = 10000 / 0,33 = 30303
Estimated Time to
Complete (ETC) ETC =OTE / SPI= 7/0.5=14
3 Cost Control
Figure 7-5 shows an earned value chart for a one-year project after five months.
Note that the actual cost and earned value lines end at five months.
The chart includes three lines and two points, as follows:
l Planned value (PV), the cumulative planned amounts for all activities by month.
Note that the planned value line extends for the estimated length of the project and ends at the BAC point.
l Actual cost (AC), the cumulative actual amounts for all activities by month.
l Earned value (EV), the cumulative earned value amounts for all activities by month.
3 Cost Control
3 Cost Control
Budget at completion (BAC)
the original total budget for the project.
l BAC is $100,000 in this example.
l The BAC point is plotted on the chart at the original time estimate of twelve months.
Estimate at completion (EAC),
l estimated to be $122,308, in this example.
l This number is calculated by taking the BAC ($100,000) dividing by the CPI, which, in this example, was 81.761%.
l This EAC point is plotted on the chart at the estimated time to complete of 12.74 months.
l This number is calculated by taking the original time estimate, or 12 months in this case, and dividing by the SPI, which in this example was 94.203%.
3 Cost Control
Project manager will need, and generally be required, to meet with project sponsor to report the status of the cost of the project.
Project manager will have to be able to report on a regular schedule the following items:
l The amount of finances spent on the project to date
l Actual costs versus the budgeted costs
l Value of work performed
l Cost variances
l Suggestions, when necessary, to reduce the cost of resources
4 Team Control
In addition to developing the project team, the project manager must
l lead them in performing various project activities,
l assess team performance and related information,
l decide if changes should be requested to the project,
l if corrective or preventive actions should be recommended,
l if updates are needed to the project management plan or organizational process assets
l Project managers must use their soft skills to find the best way to motivate and manage each team member.
l 4 Team Control
There are several tools and techniques available:
a) Observation and conversation
l Many project managers like to practice "management by walking around" to physically see and hear their team members at work.
l Informal or formal conversations about how a project is going to provide crucial information.
l For virtual workers, project managers can still observe and discuss work and personal issues via e-mail, telephone, or other communications media.
4 Team Control
b) Project perfomance appraisals:
l Project managers have to provide performance appraisals for their workers.
l The need for and type of project performance appraisals will vary depending on
l the length of the project,
l complexity of the project,
l organizational policies,
l contract requirements, and
l related communications
l c) Conflict management:
Few projects are completed without any conflicts. There are several ways to handle conflicts.
It's important for project managers to understand strategies for handling conflicts and to proactively manage conflict.
4 Team Control
Blake and Mouton (1924) delineated five basic modes for handling conflicts: confrontation, compromise, smoothing, forcing, and withdrawal.
l Confrontation
When using the confrontation mode, project managers directly face a conflict using a problem-solving approach that allows affected parties to work through their disagreements. This approach is also called the problem-solving mode.
l Compromise
With the compromise mode, project managers use a give-and- take approach to resolving conflicts. They bargain and search for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all the parties in a dispute.
4 Team Control
Smoothing
When using the smoothing mode, the project manager avoids areas of differences and emphasizes areas of agreement.
l Forcing
The forcing mode can be viewed as the win-lose approach to conflict resolution.
Project managers exert their viewpoint at the potential expense of another viewpoint.
Managers who are very competitive or autocratic in their management style might favor this approach.
l Withdrawal
When using the withdrawal mode, project managers retreat or withdraw from an actual or potential disagreement. This approach is the least desirable conflict-handling mode.
4 Team Control
Research indicates that project managers favor using confrontation for conflict resolution over the other four modes. The term confrontation may be misleading.
This mode really focuses on addressing conflicts using a problem-solving approach.
5 Quality Control
Although one of the main goals of quality control is to improve quality, the main outcomes of this process are:
l acceptance decisions,
l rework, and
l process adjustments.
Acceptance decisions
l Determine if the products or services of the project are accepted or rejected.
l If they are accepted, they are considered to be validated deliverables.
l If project stakeholders reject some of the products or services, there must be rework.
5 Quality Control
Rework
l Is action taken to bring rejected items into compliance with product requirements or specifications or other stakeholder expectations.
l Rework often results in requested changes, resulting from recommended defect repair or corrective or preventive actions.
l Rework can be very expensive, so the project manager must strive to do a good job of quality planning and quality assurance to avoid this need.
5 Quality Control
Process adjustments
l Process adjustments are often found by using quality control measurements, and
l they often result in updates to the quality baseline, organization process assets, and the project management plan.
5 Quality Control
Quality control tools and techniques
Improving IT project Quality
5 Quality Control
Quality control tools and techniques
Quality control includes many general tools and techniques:
l Cause-and-effect Diagrams
l Control Chart
l Run Chart
l Scatter Diagram
l Pareto Chart
l Flowchart
l Statistical Sampling
l Six Sigma
l Testing
5 Quality Control
Testing:
needs to be done during almost every phase of the systems development life cycle, not just before the organization ships or hands over a product to the customer.
5 Quality Control
Testing phases (Figure 8-10):
l Unit test: is done to test each individual component (often a program) to ensure that it is as defect-free as possible.
l Integration testing: occurs between unit and system testing to test functionally grouped components. It ensures a subset(s) of the entire system works together.
l System testing: tests the entire system as one entity. It focuses on the big picture to ensure that the entire system is working properly.
l User acceptance testing: is an independent test performed by end users prior to accepting the delivered system.
5 Quality Control
5 Quality Control
Watts S. Humphrey, an expert on software quality at Carnegie Mellon's Software Engineering Institute,
believes that the traditional code/test/fix cycle for software development is not enough.
l As code gets more complex, the number of defects missed by testing increases and becomes the problem not just of testers, but also of customers,
l Humphrey says that, on average, programmers introduce a defect for every nine or ten lines of code, and
l the finished software, after all testing, contains about
five to six defects per thousand lines of code.
5 Quality Control
Software defect:
Humphrey defines a software defect as anything that must be changed before delivery of the program.
Testing does not sufficiently prevent software defects because the number of ways to test a complex system is huge.
In addition, users will continue to invent new ways to use a system that its developers never considered,
so certain functionalities may never have been tested or even included in the system requirements.
5 Quality Control
Humphrey suggests that people rethink the software development process to provide no potential defects when you enter system testing.
This means that developers must be responsible for providing error-free code at each stage of testing.
Programmers need to be motivated and excited to do high-quality work and have some control over how they do it.
5 Quality Control
Improving IT project Quality
In addition to:
l good quality planning,
l quality assurance, and
l quality control.
There are several other important issues involved in improving the quality of information technology projects:
a) strong leadership,
b) understanding the cost of quality,
c) providing a good workplace to enhance quality,
d) expectation and cultral diferences,
e) working toward improving the organization's overall maturity
level in software development and project management,
5 Quality Control
a) Leadership
l A large percentage of quality problems are associated with management, not technical issues.
Therefore, top management must take responsibility for creating, supporting, and promoting quality programs.
l Motorola provides an excellent example of a high-technology company that truly emphasizes quality.
Leadership is one of the factors that helped Motorola achieve its great success in quality management and Six Sigma.
5 Quality Control
b) Cost of Quality
l Cost of quality is the cost of conformance plus the cost of nonconformance.
l Conformance means delivering products that meet requirements and fitness for use.
Examples of these costs include the costs associated with:
l developing a quaIity plan,
l costs for analyzing and managing product requirements,
l costs for testing.
l Cost of nonconformance means taking responsibility for failures or not meeting quality expectations.
l 5 Quality Control
c) Organizational Influences, Workplace Factors
l A study done by Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister.
Starting in 1983, DeMarco and Lister conducted "Coding War Games" over several years, in which time more than 600 software developers from 92 organizations participated.
l The games were designed to examine
l programming quality,
l productivity over a wide range of organizations,
l technical environments, and
l programming languages.
l 5 Quality Control
l The study demonstrated that
organizational issues
had a much greater influence on productivity than
the technical environment or programming languages.
l DeMarco and Lister found that productivity varied by a factor of about one to ten across all participants.
That is, one team may have finished a coding project in one day while another team took 10 days to finish the same project.
5 Quality Control
l DeMarco and Lister also found no correlation between productivity and programming language, years of experience, or salary.
l Furthermore, the study showed that providing a dedicated workspace and a quiet work environment were key factors in improving productivity.
The results of the study suggest that top managers must focus on workplace factors to improve productivity and quality.
5 Quality Control
d) Expectation and cultral diferences
l Although many aspects of quality can be clearly defined and measured, many cannot.
l Expectations can also vary based on an organization's culture or geographic region.
l 5 Quality Control
e) Maturity models
l Another approach to improving quality in software development projects and project management in general is the use of maturity models, which are frameworks for helping organizations improve their processes and systems.
l Many maturity models have five levels,
l first level describing characteristics of the least organized or mature organizations, and
l level five describing the characteristics of the most organized and mature organizations.
l Three popular maturity models include
l the Software Quality Function Deployment (SQFD) model,
l the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI), and
l the project management maturity model.
Лекция 5
IT PROJETS
Closing
5 Project Closing
Completing the Project
When you begin to see the final tasks coming into focus, it is not a signal to ease off of the project team and the project.
The problem with relaxing as the project is nearly completed is the project team will follow your lead and relax as well.
As the project team sees the project manager ease out of meetings, Out of sight, and out of focus, they’ll follow suit and do the same.
5 Project Closing
When the project team and the project manager realize they are not prepared to complete the project on schedule
The project manager looks for ways to speed up the process to compete the job on time.
This usually means additional hours, nights, and weekends.
Be prepared to work the hardest in the final days of a project’s implementation if the project is off schedule even by just a few days.
5 Project Closing
When you find yourself with a huge amount of work to complete in just a few hours, here are a few guidelines to being successful:
Remain cool, calm, and collected.
Get organized and treat the final work as a mini-project. Analyze the work to be completed, break down the tasks, and set the plan into action.
Check for quality. Periodically take a sampling of the work to confirm that what you are attempting to deliver on time is the quality you and the end user will expect.
Work in shifts. If your team must work around the clock break up the team in shifts so that the team can get some rest and be refreshed.
5 Project Closing
Obtaining Final Sign-Off
Once you’re satisfied with the project deliverables
Move into the transfer of ownership of the project to the organization
Formal acceptance of a project’s deliverables is a process that is completed by the client of the project and the appropriate members of the project team
The project acceptance agreement is typically written very early in the project timeline and in alignment with the defined project deliveiables
The document clearly explains what qualifies for an acceptance of the deliverables.
5 Project Closing
Post-Project Audit
The client and the team members will test the deliverables against the acceptance agreement to confirm that the deliverables exist.
At the conclusion of the project and before the final project report is submitted, a project manager should complete an audit of the success of the project.
5 Project Closing
Creating the Final Report
The project vision statement that introduced the project
The project proposal that you may have used to sell management on the idea of the technical implementation
The original project plan and the revised project plan
The WBS and the PND
The minutes from each team meeting
Any Project Change Requests forms that were approved
All written notices relevant to the project deliverables
Total cost of the project and the calculated value of the implementation
Client acceptance agreement
Post-project audit report
5 Project Closing
Evaluating Team Members’ Performance
Project manager reviews the work of the team members
This evaluation is a serious process that may impact their salary, their job, or opportunities to advance within the company.
conduct an interview with the team member and his immediate manager, or hold a private meeting with the team member’s immediate manager to discuss the work.
5 Project Closing
Declaring Victory Failure
Declaring Victory
A project is a victory if is completed on time, on scope, and within budget, and the project has resulted in the quality deliverable that was expected.
Declaring Failure
Many projects are started, stopped, and rearranged, only to complete the cycle again and again without ever getting anywhere near the projected deliverables?
Lecture 2
IT Projects
Planning
Planning
1. Scope Planning
2. Time Planning
3. Cost Planning
4. Human Resource Planning
5. Quality Planning
1 Scope Planning
Scope refers to all the work involved in
l creating the products of the project and
l the processes used to create them.
Project scope management includes
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