Market Economy

In a market economy, the questions of What, How and for Whom to produce are made by individuals and firms acting in their own interests. In economic term a market is an arrangement that allows buyers and sellers to come together to conduct transactions.

Since consumers like products with low prices and high quality, producers in a market economy will try to supply such products. Those who make the best products for the lowest prices will make profits and stay in business. Other producers will either go out of business or switch to different products consumer can buy.

A market economy has several major advantages that traditional economy doesn't have. First, a market economy is flexible and can adjust to change over time.

When gas prices in the United States began to level off in 1985 and then decline in 1986, the trend slowly began to reverse.

The second major advantage of the market economy is the freedom that exists for everyone involved. Producers are free to make whatever they think will sell. They are also free to produce their products in the most efficient manner. Consumers on the other hand are free to spend their money or buy whatever goods and services they wish to have.

The third advantage of the market economy is the lack of significant government intervention. Except for national defence, the government tries to stay out of the way. As long as there is competition among producers, the market economy generally takes care of itself.

The final advantage of the market economy is the incredible variety of goods and services available to consumers. In fact, almost any product can and will be produced so long as there is a buyer for it.

Marketing

Marketing includes all the business activities connected with the movement of goods and services from producers to consumers. Sometimes it is called distribution. On the one hand, marketing is made up of such activities as transporting, storing and selling goods and, on the other hand, a series of decisions you make during the process of moving goods from producer to user. Marketing operations include product planning, buying, storage, pricing, promotion, selling, credit, traffic and marketing research.

The ability to recognize early trends is very important. Producers must know why, where, for what purpose the consumers buy. Market research helps the producer to predict what the people will want. And through advertising he attempts to influence the customer to buy. Marketing operations are very expensive. They take up more than half of the consumer's dollar. The trend in the USA has been to high mass consumption. The construction of good shopping centres has made goods available to consumers. It provided a wide range of merchandise and plenty of parking facilities.

Wholesaling

Wholesaling is a part of the marketing system. It provides channels of distribution which help to bring goods to the market. Generally indirect channels are used to market manufactured consumer goods. It could be from the manufacturer to the wholesaler, from the retailer to the consumer or through more complicated channels. A direct channel moves goods from the manufacturer or producer to the consumer.

Wholesaling is often a field of small business, but there is a growing chain movement in the western countries. About a quarter of wholesaling units accounts for one-third of total sales.

Two-third of the wholesaling middleman is merchant wholesalers who take title to the goods they deal in. There are also agent middlemen who negotiate purchases or sales or both. They don't take title to the goods they deal in. Sometimes they take possession though. These agents don't earn salaries. They receive commissions. This is a percentage of the value of the goods they sell.

Wholesalers simplify the process of distribution. For example, the average supermarket stocks 5.000 items in groceries alone, a retail druggist can have more than 6.000 items. As a wholesaler handles a large assortment of items from numerous manufacturers he reduces the problem of both manufacturer and retailer. The store-keeper does not have to deal directly with thousands of different people. He usually has a well-stocked store and deals with only a few wholesalers.

Retailing

Retailing is selling goods and services to the ultimate consumer. Thus, the retailer is the most expensive link in the chain of distribution. Being middlemen, they make their profit by charging the customer 25 to 100 per cent more than the price they paid for the item.

The retailers operate through stores, mail-order houses, vending machine operators. There are different types of retail stores: department stores, discount houses, cooperatives, single line retailers. The major part (over 95 per cent) of retail establishments concentrate on a single line of merchandise for example, food, hardware, etc. But nowadays there is a trend for many single line stores to take on a greater variety of supplies.

The retailer performs many necessary functions. First, he may provide a convenient location. Second, he often guarantees and services the merchandise he sells. Third, the retailer helps to promote the product through displays, advertising or sales people. Fourth, the retailer can finance the customer by extending credit. Also the retailer stores the goods in his outlet by having goods available.

Law

Human Rights

A right is a freedom of some kind. Human rights are the rights to which everyone is entitled – no matter who they are or where they live – simply because they are human beings.

There are thirty human rights. They include: the right to live in freedom and safety; the right to travel, the right to belong to a country; the right to own things and share them; the right to believe in what you want to believe; and the right to say what you think. They even include the right to do things that you enjoy doing.

During World War II, tens of millions of people died. When the war ended the victorious nations met to decide how to prevent such acts from happening again. They formed the United Nations Organization (UN) to advance human rights and peace. Ukraine was one of the 51 founder states of the UN. It was the only Soviet republic that became a member state alongside with the USSR.

The UN created the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the first truly universal human rights document. The basic laws of many nations today include the rights contained in the Declaration.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Human rights are international norms that help to protect all people everywhere from political, legal, and social abuses. Examples of human rights are the right to freedom of religion, the right to a fair trial when charged with a crime, the right not to be tortured, and the right to engage in political activity. These rights exist in morality and in law at the national and international levels. They are addressed primarily to governments, requiring compliance and enforcement. The main sources of the contemporary conception of human rights are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 1948) and the many human rights documents and treaties that followed in international organizations such as the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Organization of American States, and the African Union.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) sets out a list of over two dozen specific human rights that countries should respect and protect. These specific rights can be divided into six or more families:

· security rights that protect people against crimes such as murder, massacre, torture, and rape;

· due process rights that protect against abuses of the legal system such as imprisonment without trial, secret trials, and excessive punishments;

· liberty rights that protect freedoms in areas such as belief, expression, association, assembly, and movement;

· political rights that protect the liberty to participate in politics through actions such as communicating, assembling, protesting, voting, and serving in public office;

· equality rights that guarantee equal citizenship, equality before the law, and nondiscrimination; and

· social (or "welfare") rights that require provision of education to all children and protections against severe poverty and starvation.

Another family that might be included is group rights. The Universal Declaration does not include group rights, but subsequent treaties do. Group rights include protections of ethnic groups against genocide and the ownership by countries of their national territories and resources.

Law

The term ‘law’ is used in many senses: we may speak of the laws of physics, mathematics, science, or the laws of football. When we speak of the law of a state we use the term ‘law’ in a special and strict sense, and in that sense law may be defined as a rule of human conduct, imposed upon and enforced among, the members of a given state.

People are by nature social animals desiring the companionship of others, and in primitive times they tended to form tribes, groups, or societies, either for self-preservation or by reason of social instinct.

If a group or society is to continue, some form of social order is necessary. Rules or laws are, therefore, drawn up to ensure that members of the society may live and work together in an orderly and peaceable manner. The larger the community (or group or state), the more complex and numerous will be the rules.

If the rules or laws are broken, compulsion is used to enforce obedience. We may say, then, that two ideas underline the concept of law: (a) order, in the sense of method or system; and (b) compulsion – i.e. the enforcement of obedience to the rules or laws laid down.

The law is a living thing and it changes through the course of history. Changes are brought about by various factors such as invasion, contact with other races, material prosperity, education, the advent of new machines or new ideas or new religions. Law responds to public opinion and changes accordingly.

Thus Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator in relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on derivative markets. Property law defines rights and obligations related to the transfer and title of personal and real property. Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security, while tort law allows claims for compensation if a person's rights or property are harmed. If the harm is criminalised in penal code, criminal law offers means by which the state can prosecute the perpetrator. Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives. Administrative law is used to review the decisions of government agencies, while international law governs affairs between sovereign nation states in activities ranging from trade to environmental regulation or military action.

Lawyer

The main responsibility of a company commercial lawyer is to make sure that the activity of the company doesn’t contravene the current legislation. The daily work of a company commercial lawyer consists in drafting or checking the documents of the company to ensure that they conform to the legislation and the company’s best interests are protected. A company’s commercial lawyer represents the company in court.

The principal duties of a notary include: attestation of documents and certification of their due execution, preparation and certification of wills, deeds, affidavits, statutory declarations contracts and other legal documents specified in the legislation of Ukraine, certification of copy documents. A notary identifies himself or herself on documents by the use of his or her individual seal.

A barrister (solicitor) is a lawyer who represents natural and legal persons in court and defends their interests. To perform his duties a barrister has a number of rights, such as the right to study the documentation from the case of his client, the right to be present at the interrogations. A client can entitle the lawyer to represent him in court and may not be present at court sittings. Every person suspected of perpetration has the right to demand free solicitor’s advice.

Ukraine is one of the few countries where the main function of the Office of Public prosecutor is to survey whether the citizens of Ukraine observe the Constitution and other laws. A prosecutor can conduct criminal investigations. The prosecution is also the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual or a legal person suspected of breaking the law in a criminal trial.

A judge or justice is an official who presides over the court. To be appointed a judge one should be at least 25 years old, have university degree in law and a certificate issued after successful passing the qualification examination. Judges in Ukraine are appointed for the term of 5 years by the President and consequently their appointments are considered by the Verkhovna Rada.

Veterinary Medicine

Дата добавления: 2015-10-24