Translation and the Problems of Style

1. Definition of Style

Style is variation in a person’s speech or writing. Style usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc.

A particular style, e.g. a formal style or a colloquial style, is sometimes referred to as a stylistic variety.

Some linguists use the term register for a stylistic variety while others differentiate between the two. (522)

Register (регистр, стиль; уровень (произношения, чистоты речи и т. п.)) is a form of a language associated with a particular social situation or subject matter, such as obscene slang, legal language, or journalese.

Register is concerned with the overall tone of a text or conversation, and the relationship that is built between the speaker and listener, or reader and writer. It is important to speak and write in the appropriate register for the situation.

A functional style of a language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.

A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain task, set by the sender of the message.

2. Classification of Functional Styles

Functional style appears mainly in the literary standard of a language. In English there are the following major functional styles:

1) the language of belles-lettres (poems, emotive prose, drama);

2) the language of publicist literature (oratory, essays, feature articles in newspaper and journals):

3) the language of newspapers (brief news items, advertisments and announcements, headlines);

4) the language of science (scientific prose, exact sciences, humanitarian sciences);

5) the language of official documents (diplomatic, business, legal, military).

The Belles-Lettres Style

Belles-Lettres is literature that is an end in itself and is not practical or purely informative. The term can refer generally to poetry, fiction, drama, etc., or more specifically to light, entertaining, sophisticated literature. It is often used to refer to literary studies, particularly essays. The word is French and literally means “beautiful letters”. (Encyclopaedia Britannica http://www.britannica.com/bps/failedlogin) The function of belles-lettres style is aesthetic.

The following peculiarities of literary texts should be taken into account when translating them from one language into another:

1) abundance of expressive means and concepts,

2) high emotional load,

3) usage of obsolete expressions and archaisms,

4) a large number of stylistic devices.

As a result, the translator should have enough imagination and creativity to render the complete sense, colors, emotions and the effects of a literary text making it at the same time clear and readable for a particular speaker.

For example:

English text

Russian translation

He had a dark face, with stern features and a heavy brow; his eyes and gathered eyebrows looked ireful and thwarted just now; he was past youth, but had not reached middle-age; perhaps he might be thirty-five. I felt no fear of him, and but little shyness. Had he been a handsome, heroic-looking young gentleman, I should not have dared to stand thus questioning him against his will, and offering my services unasked. I had hardly ever seen a handsome youth; never in my life spoken to one. I had a theoretical reverence and homage for beauty, elegance, gallantry, fascination; but had I met those qualities incarnate in masculine shape, I should have known instinctively that they neither had nor could have sympathy with anything in me, and should have shunned them as one would fire, lightning, or anything else that is bright but antipathetic. (Charlotte Brontë Jane Eyre)

Лицо смуглое, черты суровые, лоб массивный. Глаза под густыми сросшимися бровями горели гневным упрямством. Уже не юноша, он, пожалуй, еще не достиг средних лет, - ему могло быть около тридцати пяти. Я не чувствовала перед ним ни страха, ни особой робости. Будь он романтическим молодым героем, я бы не отважилась надоедать ему расспросами и навязывать свои услуги, но я, вероятно, еще не видела красивых юношей и, уж конечно, ни с одним не говорила. В теории я преклонялась перед красотой, галантностью, обаятельностью, но если бы я встретила все эти достоинства, воплощенными в мужском образе, я бы сразу поняла, что такой человек не найдет во мне ничего притягательного, и бежала бы от него, как от огня или молнии, которые скорее пугают, чем влекут к себе. (Перевод В. Станевич)

As for the approaches to translating poetry - this is really a titanic and creative work that can be done by the “masters of rhyme”. You should be a poet yourself to render the full sense and the stylistic beauty of a poetical masterpiece and to make clear the message of the author as well. http://afim.md/en/literaturnyiy-perevod.php

For example:

English text

Russian translation

If – If you can keep your head when all about you Are loosing theirs and blaming it on you, If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you. But make allowance for their doubting too; If you can wait and not be tired of waiting, Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies. Or being hated, don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise:   If you can dream – and not make dreams your master, If you can think – and not make thoughts your aim, If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same; If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools. Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken. And stoop and build’em up with worn-out tools:   If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings And never breathe a word about your loss; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them: “Hold on!” If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with Kings – nor lose the common touch, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run. Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And – which is more – you’ll be a Man, my son!   Rudyard Kipling

ЗАПОВЕДЬ Владей собой среди толпы смят­енной, Тебя клян­ущей за смят­енье всех, Верь сам в себя, напе­рекор всел­енной, И мало­верным отпусти их грех; Пусть час не пробил, жди, не уста­вая, Пусть лгут лжецы, не снис­ходи до них; Умей прощать и не кажись, прощая, Вели­коду­шней и мудрей других. Умей мечт­ать, не став рабом мечт­анья, И мысл­ить, мысли не обож­еств­ив; Равно встр­ечай успех и пору­ганье, Не забы­вая, что их голос лжив; Оста­нься тих, когда твое же слово Калечит плут, чтоб улов­лять глуп­цов, Когда вся жизнь разр­ушена, и снова Ты должен все восс­озда­вать с основ. Умей пост­авить, в радо­стной наде­жде, На карту все, что накопил с трудом, Все прои­грать и нищим стать, как прежде, И никогда не пожа­леть о том; Умей прин­удить сердце, нервы, тело Тебе служ­ить, когда в твоей груди Уже давно все пусто, все сгорело, И только Воля гово­рит: «Иди!» Оста­нься прост, беседуя с царями, Оста­нься честен, говоря с толпой; Будь прям и тверд с врагами и с друз­ьями, Пусть все, в свой час, счит­аются с тобой; Наполни смыслом каждое мгно­венье, Часов и дней неум­олимый бег, - Тогда весь мир ты примешь как влад­енье, Тогда, мой сын, ты будешь Человек! (Перевод М. Лозинского)

To sum up the translator of belles lettres should keep in mind the following important things: preservation of form, content, structure and aesthetic impact of the original, with consideration of all language peculiarities.

A few words should be said about translation of headings and titles of literary works.

Translation of Headings and Titles

The title of a literary text may be a little changed to achieve an appropriate connotation in the TT. For example, the translation of the title of Alexander Grin’s book Алые паруса required lexical and stylistic analysis so that the translator didn’t distort the message of the novel.

The thing is that the adjective алый in the Russian language has a good connotation. It is associated with something pleasant, merry, for example, with holidays.

Ex: алые губы - cherry red lips

In English алый is translated as:

vermilion - ярко-красный, алый; багряный;

crimson - 1) малиновый, тёмно-красный; 2) кровавый;

scarlet - алый, ярко-красный; пурпурный.

However the title of the book is translated as Crimson Sales because in the English language a scarlet woman is any sexually promiscuous woman, especially a prostitute (блудница, распутная женщина), that is why the word scarlet has a bad connotation.

(This expression comes from the Bible, New Testament. It means a sinful woman described in Revelation 17, interpreted as a figure either of pagan Rome or of the Roman Catholic Church regarded as typifying vice overlaid with gaudy pageantry.)

The Publicist Style

Publicist style is represented by the following substyles: oratorical (direct contact with the listeners); radio and TV commentary; essay (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in journals and magazines, pamphlets); journalistic articles (political, social, economic). (Рябцева Э.Г. Стилистика английского языка, с. 256 //Ю.К. Волошин, В.В. Катермина, Э.Г. Рябцева Основы научных исследований, Лексикология английского языка. Стилистика английского. (УМК) языка, Краснода, 2008)

Publicist texts possess a distinct emotive colouring. Their vocabulary is literary and their syntax is rather complicated. Publicist style is characterized by its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader or listener and shaping his views. This fact explains the use of various expressive means the translator should bear in mind when translating publicist literature: on the one hand, the TT should be easy to read, on the other – it shouldn’t be frivolous.

Compare the original with its translated version.

English text

Russian translation

Every discipline or profession has its own self-glorifying vocabulary. It is how its proponents justify themselves, sell themselves, and think of themselves and what they do. - Politicians bask in the concept of public service even while they pursue personal power and exploit the fears and prejudices of their constituents. But who would question the virtue of devoting oneself to public service? - Lawyers defend justice and our rights on a handsome contingency basis as they lead us through a thicket of regulations and liabilities created by other lawyers. But who would question the virtue of devoting oneself to justice and rights? - Physicians (even those with bulging portfolios) heal and save lives, an undeniably noble cause. Who would question the value of human life and well-being? - University professors immodestly celebrate what they do in the noble language of truth and knowledge even when they spend most of their time and energy battling one another for status in exquisitely petty but vicious campus politics. But who would question their dedication to the truth, to enlightening young minds, and to preserving the values of civilization? (Solomon, Robert C. A Better Way to Think About Business: How Personal Integrity Leads to Corporate Success. USA, 1999)

Каждая дисциплина или профессия характеризуется своим собственным лексиконом – способом, которым их представители оправдываются, занимаются саморекламой и думают о себе и о том, что они делают. - Политикам доставляет удовольствие сама концепция государственной службы даже тогда, когда они добиваться личной власти и пользуются в своих интересах такими чувствами избирателей, как страхи и предрассудки. Но кто же усомнится в добродетели отдать всего себя государственной службе? - Адвокаты защищают справедливость и наши права, располагая солидными знаниями о ряде непредвиденных обстоятельствах, когда они ведут нас через чащи всевозможных норм, положений и обязательств, созданных другими правоведами. Но кто же усомнится в добродетели отдать всего себя защите справедливости и прав? - Доктора (даже те, у кого непомерно большое количество обязанностей) вылечивают людей и спасают их жизни, что несомненно является благородным делом. Но кто же усомнится в ценности человеческой жизни и благополучии каждого из нас в отдельности? - Преподаватели университетов порой до неприличия прославляют то, что они делают, выражаясь возвышенным языком правды и знаний даже тогда, когда они большую часть времени и энергии тратят на то, что воюют друг с другом за продвижение абсолютно ограниченной и откровенно неправильной линии поведения руководства вуза. Но кто же усомнится в том, что они полностью на стороне правды, что они преданы делу просвещения молодых умов и стремятся сберечь ценности нынешней цивилизации?

The Style of Official Documents

A world of globalisation and broadening international relationships requires the translation of an increasing number of public and private sector documents, written in official style, which is represented by the following sub-styles and variants:

- the language of business documents;

- the language of legal documents;

- the language of diplomacy

- the language of military documents

Official stylehas a definite communicative aim and, accordingly, its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means.

In some respects the translation of official documents is the opposite of literary translation, which provides for the freedom of actions and the choice of an interpreter. So the translator should pay especial attention to some peculiar features of this type of texts on lexical, grammatical and structural levels.

Lexical level

1) the highest degree of formality of vocabulary (to inform = to tell; to assist = to help);

2) the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning (to cooperate сотрудничать с кем-л.; contract - контракт, договор, соглашение);

3) the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions (FLOTUS - First Lady of the United States; $ - dollar; Ltd - Limited);

4) the use of clichés, terms and set-phrases for which there are usually standard equivalents in the TL (we the undersigned... - мы, нижеподписавшиеся, …);

5) absence of emotiveness.

Grammatical level

1) the frequent use of non-finite forms of the verb and predicative constructions, such as the Complex Object, the Complex Subject and etc. (Considering that …; We expect this to take place …; This is expected to take place …; The conditions being violated, it appears necessary to state that …);

2) the use of the passive constructions (Two copies of our catalogue are enclosed.);

3) the use of conditional sentences, especially at the end of a business letter (We should be glad if you would confirm this booking as soon as possible.).

Compositional pattern and design

The structure of the official document is also worth mentioning. As a rule, it consists of a preamble, main text body and a finalizing (concluding) part and the task of the translator is to keep to this pattern.

Compare the original with its translated version.

English example

Russian translation

62 Selbourne Road Sheffield S20 5 AD   To: Sales Department, Comparts LTD From: Susan Brown, Purchasing Department Date: 12 August Subject: computer accessories   Dear Sirs, I should be grateful if you would send me your new catalogue and price-list of new computer accessories. Please enclose free descriptive leaflets with your reply and state what discount you allow for quantities. Yours faithfully, Susan Brown, Purchasing manager

62 Selbourne Road Шеффилд S20 5 AD   Кому: коммерческий отдел, Comparts LTD От кого: Сьюзан Браун, отдел закупок Дата: 12 августа Тема: компьютерные аксессуары   Уважаемые господа, Буду благодарна, если вы вышлите ваш новый каталог и прайс-лист на новые компьютерные аксессуары. Пожалуйста, приложите отдельные рекламные листки и сообщите, какую скидку вы можете дать на оптовую закупку. С уважением, Сьюзан Браун, менеджер по закупкам

The Language of Scientific Literature

Scientific style is found in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and academic publications. (Рябцева Э.Г. Стилистика английского языка, с. 257 //Ю.К. Волошин, В.В. Катермина, Э.Г. Рябцева Основы научных исследований, Лексикология английского языка. Стилистика английского. (УМК) языка, Краснода, 2008)

Translation of scientific and technical literature is one of the most complicated and time-consuming types of translation. It can be done professionally only by a high-skilled specialist, who has profound knowledge of a foreign language, knows the application domain and possesses a good command of specialized terminology.

To render scientific texts into the TL competently the translator should bear in mind the following features typical of this literature:

1. Scientific texts are characterized by the abundance of special terminology.

2. The word-order is usually strict. The inversion occurs seldom.

3. Each paragraph starts with a key sentence containing the main idea.

4. The logical sequence of utterances with clear indications of their interrelations and interdependence is especially important. To stress the logical connection between sentences the special set-phrases are used (to sum up - суммировать; обобщать; подводить итог; as we have seen in chapter 5... - как мы показали в главе 5...). The adverbs (finally, again, thus) and conjunctions (that, than, if, as, or, nor) serve the same aim. Some conjunctions are used in pairs (not merely, but also; both … and; as … as).

5. Quotations, references and footnotes are also widespread in scientific texts.

6. The expressiveness in scientific and technical texts is not a widespread phenomenon, but if the author wants to emphasize this or that idea, he/she can use such phrases as much the same - почти такой же, похожий; to note that - отметить, что; another point of considerable interest is … - другой момент, который представляет для нас значительный интерес – это …; it is by no means trivial - это отнюдь не банальный, тривиальный факт.

The most important role in scientific and technical translation is played by the professionalism of the translator. Besides perfect knowledge of a foreign language, linguistically and terminologically correct translation depends on his/her erudition and analytic abilities. (Scientific-technical translation http://iatp.com.ua/en/pismennyiy-perevod)

The Main Ways of Translating Terms

Way of translation	Example	Translation
1) by means of its lexical equivalent:	a) one takes a Russian term as an equivalent to an English term, the form of which is not connected with the form of the English term (recognized translation). maternity leave	отпуск по беременности и родам
b) the equivalent is created by means of the transcription / transliteration of the English term.   outsourcing	аутсорсинг
c) the equivalent is created by means of calque.   marriage property pact	брачно-имущественный контракт
d) the equivalent is created by combination of transcription and calque (semicalque).   biodiversity	биоразнообразие (биологическое разнообразие)
2) by choosing one of the possible lexical variants:	a) the choice between calque and corresponding Russian term.   field force	- "полевые" сотрудники - сотрудники компании, работающие на местах или в филиалах компании, вдали от головной конторы
b) the choice between transcription and the Russian term.   prime time	- прайм-тайм - лучшее эфирное время
c) the choice between transcription and definition.   baby boomer	- бэби-бумер - человек, родившийся в период демографического взрыва (особенно в 1946-64 гг. в США или Канаде);
3) by means of definition only	first-past-the-post	отдающий победу кандидату, набравшему простое большинство голосов

The Main Ways of Translating Abbreviations

Abbreviation is a shortened or contracted form of a word or phrase used in place of the whole.

Abbreviation	Way of word formation	Russian translation	Way of translation
EuroClear	Syllable abbreviation (combination of two initial syllables)	ЮроКлир (клиринговая система, учреждение для расчетов между банками на вторичном рынке еврооблигаций и других ценных бумаг)	Transcription / transliteration
CEO (Chief Executive Officer)	Letter abbreviation	Главный исполнительный директор корпорации	The abbreviation is reformulated into full words.
Four Ps (product, place, price, promotion)	Mixed abbreviation (consists of number and letters)	Четыре составных части маркетинга	The abbreviation is reformulated into full words.
Sales rep. (sales representative)	Shortened word	Торговый представитель	The abbreviation is reformulated into full words.
WTO (World Trade Organization)	Letter abbreviation	ВТО (Всемирная торговая организация)	Calque
CHESS (Community Health and Environmental Surveillance System)	Acronym (letter abbreviation)	Система контроля за состоянием здоровья населения и окружающей средой	The abbreviation is reformulated into full words.
SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)	Acronym (letter abbreviation)	Переговоры по ОСВ (советско-американские переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений)	Mixed translation: prop noun переговоры + corresponding Russian abbreviation

Compare the original with its translated version.

English text

Russian translation

Estimates of the hydrocarbon potential of Greenland vary widely. At one stage it was thought Baffin Bay could contain up to 50 billion barrels of oil, as much as the entire production of the North Sea, while the northeast might have another 30 billion barrels. Latest indications are that the oil reserves are much smaller, though gas deposits are likely to be substantial. (Thawing assets by Kieran Cooke. THE TIMES / Eureka / January 2010, p. 46)

Оценки углеводородного потенциала Гренландии существенно отличаются. На одном из этапов считалось, что в море Баффина сосредоточено до 50 млрд. баррелей нефти, ровно столько, сколько добывается в Северном море, в то время как в северо-восточной части страны, возможно, залегает еще 30 млрд. баррелей. Но последние исследования свидетельствуют о том, что запасов нефти там намного меньше, а вот газовые месторождения, по всей вероятности, богатые.

The Peculiarities of the Newspaper Style and Their Translation

1. The structure of a newspaper item

2. Newspaper headlines

3. The translation of clichés

The Structure of the Newspaper Item

Russian and English news texts are characterized by a number of common features, namely:

1) a wide stylistic range (different styles depending on the theme of the article);

2) preference for compressed sentences.

1. The title or headline

2. The lead (краткое изложение газетной статьи (помещается непосредственно перед статьёй))

3. The article itself

2. The lead usually contains the summary of the most essential and interesting facts of the article. And the detailed account of the material follows the lead.

In former times people used to consider that the lead had to contain one sentence answering 6 questions:

1) Who?

2) When?

3) Where?

4) Why?

5) What?

6) How?

Nowadays this rule is not so strict. The lead should answer these questions, but not necessarily all of them.

3. The compression of the text is one of the most important facts, which should be taken into account when translating newspaper article.

One and the same idea can be expressed in various ways, but on the whole laconism is typical of the newspaper style.

In the majority of manuals for journalists in the USA and Great Britain laconism is considered as one of the demands for newspaper style, but some investigations prove that the volume of any translation is bigger than that of the origin.

The tendency to the widening of the volume of the text translated should be balanced by the tendency to compression if we want to create the text meeting the norms of the newspaper international style.

Newspaper Headlines

A non-literary text or book should be accurately described by its title that is why newspaper headlines are normally translated last.

When comparing English and Russian headlines, you may trace a number of distinctive features, which are naturally reflected in translation.

1. Thus, in English headlines verb-phrases are preferably used, while the Russian headlines favor noun-phrases.

Ex: Cat goddess discovered in ruins of temple

In this headline the verb to be and the articles are left out.

N.B. You should bear in mind that in the English headlines the articles and the so called function words (служебное слово) are omitted.

So the restored sentence would be:

A cat goddess has been discovered in the ruins of a temple

Noun-phrases can also be found in English newspaper headlines.

Ex: Unilever tax warning

(The context: The Unilever chief executive has warned the Government further tax rises would force businesses abroad.)

When translating Russian newspaper headlines one should resort to the syntactic transformations.

Ex: Переброска американских солдат в Афганистан = Американских солдат перебрасывают в Афганистан

The American soldiers are being airlifted to Afghanistan

But it is not a headline yet. We should omit the verb to be and the definite article.

American soldiers airlifted to Afghanistan

2. The actions which took place in the past are usually expressed by the verbs in the present tenses.

BP investors protest over pay policy

(The context: Angry shareholders protested against payouts to BP’s directors yesterday, with nearly 16 per cent refusing to back its pay report.)

3. The actions that will take place in the future are usually expressed by infinitive.

Ex: Britain and France to sign defense treaty

4. But there are cases when the tense in the English newspaper headline corresponds to the action discussed in the article.

Ex: Mother and son hid immigrants in van

(The context: A French councilor has been jailed for three years and her son for five yeas after smuggling 16 Vietnamese into the UK.)

5. English newspaper headlines can also be represented by quotations which should be translated literally.

Ex: ‘Now we are free but we are not happy … we have no jobs, and we are hungry’

(The context: Poor people complain of broken promises and are turning to violence.)

The Translation of Clichés

The newspaper language is rich in ready-made formulae, or clichés.

Cliché is an expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has been used too often. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, p. 75)

In the process of translation it is important not only to preserve the figurative sense of the cliché, but also to stress the fact that it is used regularly and that everybody is used to it.

Here are some examples of cliché:

English expression	Russian translation
Silent Majority (a presumed moderate majority of the citizens who are too passive to make their views known)	«Молчаливое большинство»
Double standard (a set of principles that allows greater freedom to one person or group than to another)	Двойной стандарт; двойная мораль; двойные критерии оценки
Crying shame (of something bad that demands urgent attention)	Вопиющее безобразие
To flex one's muscle (to show off one's strength or power)	Играть мускулами, демонстрировать силу

Here is the example of the English newspaper article:

Дата добавления: 2015-07-10