Classification of Translation Techniques

Translation techniques are procedures which are used to analyze and classify how translation equivalence works. Translation techniques have the following characteristics:

1) they affect the result of the translation;

2) they affect micro-units of text;

3) they are by nature discursive (совершаемый путём логических умозаключений) and contextual;

4) they are functional.

The choice of the translation technique depends on:

1) the genre of the text (letter of complaint, contract, tourist brochure, belles-lettres, etc.);

2) the type of translation (technical, literary, etc.);

3) the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation audience.

It should be noted that terminological diversity and the overlapping of terms often make it difficult to explain the peculiarities of the process of translation. The same concept can be expressed with different names and the classifications vary, covering different areas of problems.

1. Lexical translation techniques

2. Contextual Replacements

a) lexico-semantic modifications

b) lexico-grammatical transformations

3. Grammatical transformations

1. Lexical Translation Techniques

	Transcriptionis a technique based upon phonetic principle. It is mandatory in all the following cases unless there is already a generally accepted translation. 1) proper names (names of people or geographical places); 2) addresses; 3) names of private firms; 4) names of national, private and public institutions unless they are transparent (i.e. clear, understandable); 5) titles of newspapers, periodicals, books, musical compositions. In all the above mentioned cases the translator may add a translation or gloss if he thinks this will help the reader. N.B. Translators often resort to transcription and naturalization* simultaneously. * Naturalization adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark, 1988b:82)	Flash mob - флеш-моб   Food-court – фуд-корт (ресторанный дворик, расположенный на территории торгового центра, который объединяет и включает в себя операторов фаст-фуда)
	Transliteration is the practice of transcribing a word or text written in one writing system into another writing system. N.B. Translators often resort to transliteration and naturalization* simultaneously.	Facilitator - фасилитатор, посредник Insider – инсайдер (лицо, в силу служебного положения располагающее конфиденциальной информацией о делах организации)
	Semantic translation is the attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.	Home care - медицинская помощь на дому; стационар на дому Densely populated area - густонаселённый район
	Loan translation (through translation / calque) isthe adoption by one language of a phrase or compound word whose components are literal translations of the components of a corresponding phrase or compound in a foreign language. It can be lexical or structural.	Peacemaker – миротворец Hot zone - "горячая" зона, зона переноса (части строк, непосредственно примыкающих к правому краю страницы текста)
	Mixed translation is represented by the combination of semantic translation + transcription and / or calque.	Constantine the Great - Константин Великий
	Recognized translation occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89) It is usually called thecorresponding TL equivalent or established equivalent.	Stakeholder - акционер Fashion designer - модельер
	Analogous translation= approximate translation is the selection of a synonym that will perfectly fit the context, that is a word or phrase which is clearer to the receptor. In other words analogous translation is used when the terms are very close but there is a slight difference in meaning, which in most cases may be neglected.   (Analogue is a word or phrase which is quite close to the SL word meaning, but without complete coincidence.)	Drugstore - аптека, аптекарский магазин (с самым широким ассортиментом товаров, в т.ч. туалетными и канцелярскими принадлежностями, мороженым, кофе, журналами) аптека - chemist's (shop): (торгует лекарствами, косметикой и средствами личной гигиены) Punch - Панч (традиционный персонаж английского кукольного театра; аналог русского Петрушки) Judy Punch and Judy show - «Панч и Джуди» (кукольное уличное представление)
	Footnote (or translator’s commentary) is a technique that has two main functions: 1) to correct linguistic and cultural differences, e.g., to explain contradictory customs, to identify unknown geographical or physical items, to give equivalents for weights and measures, to explain word play, to add information about proper names, etc.; 2) to add additional information about the historical and cultural context of the text in question.	A haunting case of such an overshoot took place on St. Matthew Island in the Bering Sea in 1944 when 29 reindeer were imported.   В памяти то и дело всплывает случай подобного овершута (т.е. превышения потенциала действия над потенциалом покоя), когда в 1944 году на остров Святого Матфея завезли 29 северных оленей. (Translator’s commentary)
	Description (or definition) is the replacement of a word or expression with a description of its form or / and function.	The ability to overexploit the earth’s stored-up supply of resources is what we call economic progress. Процесс использования природных ресурсов выше уровня их естественного восстановления – это то, что мы называем экономическим прогрессом.

2. Contextual Replacements

Lexico-semantic Modifications

№	Type of replacement	Example
	Generalizationis the use of a more general or neutral term instead of the corresponding source text item.	The country was fragmented into hundreds of warring states. Страна была раздроблена на множество воюющих между собой областей.   hundreds - сотни
	Specification / Concretization / Particularization is the use of a more precise or concrete term.	All industrial systems and designs pale when compared to the efficiency of natural systems of production. Все промышленные системы и модели теряют важность, когда их сравнивают с экологически чистыми системами производства.   design - 1) замысел, план; 2) намерение, цель; 3) чертёж, эскиз, набросок; 4) модель, шаблон
	Occasional substituteis the replacement of a SL unit by a TL unit, which can be considered as its synonym only in a given context.	In attempting to make our designs more and more complex, we found that there was less and less room for improvisation or spontaneity. Пытаясь сделать наши работы более сложными, мы поняли, что остается все меньше и меньше простора для полета фантазии и импровизации.   spontaneity - 1) самопроизвольность, спонтанность, естественность; 2) непосредственность

It should be born in mind that quite often the most appropriate way to convey the author’s idea may be far removed from a literal rendering of words, phrases and syntax. (Strelkova, p. 3)

Lexico-grammatical Transformations

№	Type of transformation	Example
	Addition (добавление) is the inclusion of one or several elements into the word-combination or phrase in the TL.	Corporations expand and contract, hire and fire, they make and sell products. Корпорации расширяются и заключают договора, нанимают и увольняют персонал, производят и реализуют свою продукцию.
	Omission / Subtraction / Reduction(опущение) is the reverse of addition. It is used to reduce the redundancy of the phrase by omitting words which can be easily restored from the context (for example, pair synonyms, unnecessary repetition, specified references, conjunctions and adverbs).	About 35 million Americans pay a monthly fee of approximately $17.00 for greater selection. Около 35 миллионов американцев ежемесячно платят примерно $17.00, чтобы иметь возможность большего выбора программ.   to pay - платить fee- (денежный) взнос, платёж; внесение платы
	Modulation is a procedure that is employed when, although a literal or even transposed, translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, but it is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL. Modulation can be lexical or structural. We distinguish three main types of modulation: cause-and-effect, metonymyandparaphrase.*	Adam Smith, in particular, would have no patience for these dehumanizing metaphors … Адама Смита такие грубые метафоры особенно выводили из себя …   (Paraphrase)   Literal translation: Адам Смит в особенности не имел терпения к таким грубым метафорам.
	Antonymous translation is the replacement of the negative construction by the affirmative one and vice versa, though the meaning of the original sentence remains intact.	The debate over the possible link between the amount of violence on television and the amount of violence in society has not been yet resolved.   Полемика вокруг возможной связи между демонстрацией насилия по телевидению и насилием в обществе продолжается. Literal translation: ... еще не окончена.
	Adaptation involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture doesn’t exist in the target culture.	"Not a dime's worth difference" - "различия, не стоящие и гроша "   dime - монета в 10 центов (в Америке и Канаде)   (Намек на отсутствие существенных различий между двумя основными политическими партиями США - Республиканской и Демократической. Впервые эту фразу употребил в 1967 губернатор штата Алабама Дж. Уоллес.)
	Compensation implies that, whenever it is not possible or comfortable to translate an element of the ST, the loss is compensated by expressing the same concept in another part of the text or the sentence. “Compensation may be the answer when a translator cannot find a good way to put across some component of the original. He can sometimes modify or add another element to aid comprehension in a different part of the sentence, thus making up for the original deficiency”. (N. Strelkova. Introduction to Russian-English Translation. New York, 2012, p. 95)	Sanary is an unpretentious seaside resort on the Riviera... You'll like it if you don't mind its being as dull as ditchwater. (W. S. Maugham, ‘The Razor's Edge’, ch. VI)   dull as ditch water - невыносимо нудный, скучный; ≈ тоска смертная, тоска зелёная   Санари - скромный морской курорт на Ривьере... Там тоска смертная. Если вы этого не боитесь, Санари вам понравится.
	Interpretationis an attempt to express the original utterance in absolutely different words in the TL. Such changes are caused by incompatibilities between the two languages, for example, semantic misfits. Interpretation is often employed when translating proverbs, sayings and idiomatic expression.	These advances produced a need for more skilled labor, which caused the wages of occupations that required more education to considerably diverge from the wages of ones that required less. Такой прогресс вызвал необходимость в использовании более квалифицированной рабочей силы, в результате чего сложилась ситуация, когда размер заработной платы нужно было дифференцировать в зависимости от знаний и опыта работника: квалифицированный труд оплачивался выше, нежели работа, не требующая специальной квалификации. Literal translation: Такой прогресс послужил причиной потребности в более квалифицированной рабочей силе, что вызвало заработную плату профессий, которые требовали более высокого образования, существенно отличающейся от заработной платы тех профессий, где не требовалась высокая квалификация.
	Emphatization. This means that we lend a stronger emotional or expressive impact to the translation as compared with the original. “Techniques of pointing up (придавать колорит) or playing down (преуменьшать, умалять) an element in the sentence can help to highlight and bring out the thought more effectively.” (N. Strelkova. Introduction to Russian-English Translation. New York, 2012, p. 58)	Countries whose children do well at school are those that recruit their teachers from the brightest graduates.   Дети демонстрируют хорошую успеваемость в школе именно в тех странах, где учителей набирают из числа самых талантливых выпускников.
	Neutralizationis the reverse of emphatization.	In a sense, each batik resides in the lap of the Gods until it comes back from the Dry cleaners with the wax removed.   in the lap of the gods - beyond human control and power (в руках божьих)   В некотором смысле, мы совершенно не уверены, что будет с батиком дальше, пока его не вернут из химчистки полностью очищенным от воска.

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