Agreement between subject and verb

Exercise 3

Add the suffix -ly to the words given in brackets.

1. Aunt Leonora came back from the kitchen, instantly seized Herr Untermeyer (affectionate) by the arm and led him to the window. 2. I paused once, looking back, to offer my help, but Mr. Wilbram seemed (mere) to be sunk in thought. 3. I loved the expression she used; but if it was intended to improve the troubled atmosphere, it failed (complete). 4. Since Dinny said no further word on the subject occupying every mind, no word was said by anyone; and for this she was (true) thankful. 5. "Anyway," she said, with one of those charming and (whole) unexpected turns of mind, "Who's for cheese?" 6. "We are (extreme) sorry to give you this trouble," said Colonel Schroff. 7. Then Mr. Barker appeared and showed him into a room, a comfortable room with lunch ready on the table and another table, (entire) bare, evidently waiting for him to spread his papers on it. 8. One day he was called to the manager's room, (due) reprimanded, and eventually pardoned in consideration of his long and faithful service. 9. I have a friend who, after an absence of many years, has (late) settled down in London, with a wife, a cat and" a garden. 10. Strange faces smiled at Leila (sweet, vague). 11. Her interests were narrow, and she (rare) journeyed farther than the corner grocery.

Exercise 4

Add the suffixes given in brackets to the underlined words. Consult the rules about keeping or dropping mute e.

1. The dog's master appeared, the beam of a flashlight dance(-ing) before him. 2. I may as well mention here that she made an advantage(-ous) match with a wealthy, worn-out man of fashion. 3. It wasn't from that dinner he remembered her, it was from notice (-ing) her in the street. 4. Glance (-ing) at his companion, he wondered if she also remembered it. 5. The only

notice (-able) thing about his appearance was the way his silver hair and beard contrasted with the dark tan of his skin. 6. He knows the boy is very courage(-ous), but he is also young. 7. But most people are afraid of face (-ing) this part of their nature. 8. The few soldiers in the streets were grey-faced and tired-looking... One thing was notice(-able): they never seemed to laugh. 9. The mechanic, who is extremely knowledge (-able) about any kind of machinery, knew exactly how to get the gate open.

Final –y and Its Modifications

When we add an ending to a word that ends in - y preceded by a consonant, we usually change -y into - i:

hurry – hurried fury – furious merry – merriment

marry – marriage easy – easier busy – business

Happy – happily

Generally, nouns and verbs that end in - y have plural or third person singular forms in – ies:

story – stories spy – spies hurry

Two spellings are possible for the nouns dryer/drier and flyer/flier, and for words made from the adjective dry (dryer/drier, dryly/drily, dryness/driness).

Other exceptions: slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness and shyer, shyest, shyness.

We do not change –y into –i before i (for example when we add –ing, -ism, -ish, -ise) and in some words before the suffixes –hood, -like, -thing, -ship:

try – trying Tory – Toryism baby - babyish

babyhood ladylike everything ladyship

But words ending in –y preceded by a consonant drop the y before the suffixes –ic, -ical, -ist:

economy – economic, economical

history – historic, historical

geology – geological, geologist

Final y is retained a) after a vowel letter:

buy – buying play – played enjoy – enjoyment

grey - greyish

Exceptions: say – said pay – paid lay – laid

gay – gaily, gaiety day - daily b) in personal names:

Mary – Marys, Gatsby – the Gatsbys

Final y changes to e before –ous after t:

piteous beauteous plenteous duteous

Exercise 1

Use the adjectives given in brackets in the appropriate degree of comparison.

1. I've never seen a... boy (lazy). 2. You are the... person I've ever met (clumsy). 3. The... thing to do is to go there at once (easy). 4. The party was much... than I had expected (gay). 5. She is a... girl, the... I have ever met; and today she has been... than ever (funny). 6. It was the... day in my life (happy). 7. Yesterday she looked... than ever (pretty). 8. Look at my hat. Isn't it lovely? — Yes, the... I've ever seen (lovely). 9. I can't say that 1 like this latest novel. I think his... books are much better (early).

Exercise 2

Form adverbs from the following adjectives:

busy, lazy, gay, sly, heavy, dry, happy, merry, shy, ready, lucky, icy, easy, tidy, pretty, angry.

Exercise 3

Give the comparative and superlative forms of the following-adjectives.

early, happy, witty, gay, grey, dry, shy, sly, easy, busy.

Exercise 4

Give the plural of the following nouns:

day, country, beauty, joy, reply, irony, monkey, baby, lady, storey, story, body, hobby.

Exercise 5

Write down the third person singular of the Present Indefinite and the Past Indefinite form of the verbs.

dry, play, cry, stay, try, delay, comply, betray, destroy, fry, repay, copy.

Exercise 6

Give Participle I of the following verbs and use five of them in sentences of your own.

tidy, try, play, stay, enjoy, vary, study, marry, obey, apply.

Exercise 7

Write out from a dictionary all the words derived from the following, and translate them:

angry, merry, marry, shy, betray, employ, vary, beauty, industry, deny, history, apply, memory, plenty, pity, duty, gay, day.

Exercise 8

Use a suitable derivative of the word given in brackets.

1. I wish you all the (happy) in the world! 8. He was well aware that this particular debt demanded prompt (pay). 3. The bride's parents did not approve of the (marry). 4. He likes to read (history) novels. 5. We've got a lot of electrical and other (apply) at home, but my husband buys more and more. Yesterday he bought a new one for opening tin cans, though we already have three. 6. Well-known critics and (essay) spoke well of the young author's new book. 7. A teacher likes his pupils to be (industry) and well-behaved. 8. The moment I dropped my gloves I hated myself and my (clumsy). 9. Mr. Sedley could not believe that his former friend could be so cruel, so (mercy). 10. This was in some measure due to her (shy), which had not yet left her. 11. They were alone for an hour,

measure due to her (shy), which had not yet left her. 11. They were alone for an hour, because Tony was taking his (day) nap. 12. Lucy stopped and turned, and faced him (angry). 13. The prisoner's (deny) of his guilt surprised everyone. 14. He is quite a (rely) person.

Ie and ei

The normal rule is that i comes before e except after c:

believe sieve but deceive receipt

There are however the following exceptions:

beige feint heir reign their

counterfeit foreign inveigh rein veil

deign forfeit inveigle seize vein

eiderdown freight leisure skein weigh

eight heifer neigh sleigh weight

either height neighbour sleight weir

feign heinous neither surfeit weird

Exercise 1

Fill in the blanks with the following words. Be careful about articles.

A. ceiling, to deceive, foreign, to perceive, to receive, to seize, conceit.

1. There are two lovely moulded... and the rooms are a beautiful shape. 2. I never tried to... by pretending I was anything I wasn't. 3. Turning round, he stared at me, but I... that he did not see me. 4. We could find out, doubtless, if Mr. Ackroyd had... any strangers during the past week. 5. Sophie knew that it was her only chance to win him back, and she... upon it. 6. I don't know why but his... and his superior air made me laugh. 7. Lying was so... to him that I could always guess when he tried to deceive me.

B. to achieve, chief, grief, to grieve, piece, to relieve, to shield, siege, thief, windshield, to yield.

1. He told me how you came there after dark like a.... 2. I feel such a pang of... that my own heart knows the pain of death. 3. He meant to be friendly, although this was a difficult feeling to..., since Coverley had never seen him before. 4. I found him behind an enormous desk in a room not perhaps so large as that of the... ministers, but larger than a small house. 5. By some magic this man seemed able by his mere presence to... your suffering. 6. The woman darted at his pipe, which he had put on a... of newspaper and blew some imaginary ash from it. 7. She tried to... her son, to save him from punishment, as every mother would have clone. 8.... is an American word for the British "windscreen". 9. She guessed one day, hardly now with surprise, that Nancy was... for Randall. 10. Mr. Jenkin decided to... to pressure and announced his resignation as Prime-Minister.

Exercise 2

Find synonyms for the italicized words from the following list:

belief, to conceive, to deceive, a foreigner, mischievous, to perceive, to relieve, to retrieve, to shield, shriek.

1. Are you sure that the shoe has not simply been mislaid? I cannot understand what use one shoe could be to anyone. 2. What she saw mentally was a kaleidoscope, no more, no less. 3. Very soon the boy learned that he had been misled by those to whom he had looked for guidance and instruction. 4. We were very glad to hear that you had arrived safely. 5. A commonly held opinion is that the main difficulty in writing is the choice of words. 6. I heard a murmur of voices, then screams of girlish laughter and everything was quiet again. 7. The girl was as fresh and pretty as a spring flower and as playful as a monkey. 8. By the end of the week I could gel back only half of what I hoped to. 9. When I came out of the dark cellar into the bright sunshine I couldn't see anything and for some minutes I stood covering my eyes with my hand

Exercise 3

Translate into English.

1. Не так легко добиться того, к чему ты стремишься. 2. Казалось, что холод пронизывал меня насквозь. 3. Эти два года она принимала гостей каждую педелю. 4. Мужчина вышел из здания вокзала и положил квитанцию в карман. 5. Их жизнь была такой странной, что я с трудом верил в ее реальность. 6. Раненая сова пронзительно кричала где-то в кустах за хижиной. 7. Войдя в дом, мы сразу увидели, что его хозяин был любителем антикварных вещей. 8. Ей стало гораздо легче, когда она узнала, что отец скоро вернется.

Exercise 4

Use the following words and expressions in sentences of your own.

to relieve somebody of smth; to yield to smth/smb; to be full of conceit; to conceive the idea of; to conceive of + Gerund/why-clause/that-clause; chiefly; chief difficulty; briefly/in brief/brief; to achieve one's purpose; to bring/to give some relief; it was a great relief; to be/stand out in strong/sharp relief against.

Doubling the Final Consonant

Doubling before vowels

We sometimes double the final consonant of a word before adding –ed, -er, -est, -ing, -able, -y (or any ending thatbegins with a vowel).

sto p – sto pp ed si t – si tt ing bi g – bi gg er

2 Which consonants are doubled?

We double the following letters:

b: ru b – ru bb ing n: wi n – wi nn able

d: sa d – sa dd er p: sto p – sto pp ed

g: bi g – bi gg er r: prefe r – prefe rr ed

l: trave l – trave ll ing t: si t – si tt ing

m: sli m – sli mm ing

We double final –s in ga ss ing, ga ss ed (but not usually in other words), final -z in fe zz es, and final –f in i ff y (a colloquial word for “questionable”, “uncertain”).

Only at the end of a word

We only double consonants that come at the end of a word. Compare:

ho p – ho pp ing but ho p e – ho p ing

fa t – fa tt er but la t e – la t er

pla n – pla nn ed but pho n e – pho n ed

One consonant after one vowel letter

We only double when the word ends in one consonant after one vowel letter. Compare:

fa t – fa tt er but fa st - fa st er

be t – be tt ing but b eat – b eat ing

Only stressed syllables

We only double consonants in stressed syllables. We do not double in longer words that end in unstressed syllables. Compare:

up’se t – up’se tt ing but ‘visi t – ‘visi t ing

be’gi n – be’gi nn ing but ‘ope n – ‘ope n ing

re’fe r – re’fe rr ing but ‘offe r – ‘offe r ing

Note the spelling of these words:

‘gallo p – gallo p ing – gallo p ed

de’velo p – de’velo p ing – de’velo p ed

6 exception: final l in unstressed syllables

In British English, we double –l at the end of a word after one vowel letter, in most cases, even in unstressed syllables.

’trave l – trave ll ing ‘equa l – equa ll ed

In American English, words like this are normally spelt with one l: trave l ing.

Other exceptions

Consonants are sometimes doubled at the end of final syllables that are pronounced with full vowels (e.g. [æ]), even when these do not carry the main stress.

kidn ap – kidn app ed

handic ap – handic app ed

worsh ip – wrsh ipp ers (US also worshi p ers)

comb at – comb at ing or comb att ing

outfi t - outfi tt ed

Final –s is sometimes doubled in focu s(s) ing, focu s(s) ed, bia s(s) ed and similar words.

Final c

Final –c changes to ck before –ed, -er, -ing, etc.

Picni c – picni ck ers pani c – pani ck ing mimi c – mimi ck ed

9 Why double?

The reason for doubling is to show that a vowel is pronounced short. This is because, in the middle of a word, a stressed vowel letter before one consonant is usually pronounced as a long vowel or as a diphthong. Compare:

ho p ing ho pp ing

la t er la tt er

di n er di nn er

Exercise 1

In each pair of sentences below the same idea can be expressed in two ways. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word from the list. Open the brackets in the listed words and make the necessary changes.

occu(r)ed, re(d)en, worshi(p)ed, trave(l)ed, expe(l)ed, dif-fe(r)ed, murmu(r)ed, sti(r)ing, quare(l)ed, wra(p)ed, regre(t)ed, revea(l)ed, cance(l)ed, prefe(r)ed, signa(l)ed, appea(r)ed.

1. She was so embarrassed that she began to blush. She was so embarrassed that her face began to.... 2. King Midas loved gold and constantly declared his great love for it. King Midas... gold. 3. They could not agree on the point. Their opinions on that point.... 4. A hideous face suddenly showed itself in the window. A hideous face suddenly... in the window. 5. This event took place in 1964. This event... in 1964. 6. He has visited many countries. He has... a great deal. 7. After his death it was dis­closed that he had been a millionaire. After his death it was... that he had been a millionaire. 8. The boy was turned out of school. The boy was... from school. 9. The branches of the tree rustled very softly. The branches of the tree.... 10. It was 3 a. m. and everyone in the house was sleeping. It was 3 a. m. and no one was.... 11. It has been decided that the concert will not take place. The concert hasbeen.... 12. He and his wife argued constantly. He and his wife... constantly. 13. The first snowfall indicated that autumn had come to an end. The first snowfall... the end of autumn. 14. She said she would rather stay at home. She said that she... to stay at home. 15. He was sorry that the incident had taken place. He... that the incident had taken place. 16. Mary put pretty paper round the gift and made it look attractive. Mary... the gift attractively.

Exercise 2

Open the brackets, doubling the final consonant of the root where necessary.

1. Brunner moved uncomfortably and offer(-ed) a weak smile. 2. He took Sally's hand, pulled her to her feet and propel (-ed) her into an orderly room. 3. The soft earth was scar(-ed) with hoof prints and heavy wheels and the vegetables were mashed into the soil. 4. "Who says so?" said Horst, signal (-ing) Otto to move his chair nearer. 5. Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries must have been a fearsome chaos of war (-ing) tribes and king­doms. 6. He stretched his long legs in their scar(-ed) high boots for them to admire. 7. The Red Cross Society administer (-ed) relief to those who lost everything in theearthquake. 10. For further details the reader is refer (-ed) to the end of the book. 11. The book is full of refer(-ence) to places I know well. 12. The king confer (-ed) a knighthood on several distinguished men. 13. Many international confer(-ences) have been held in Geneva.

Silentletters

· Silent b:

debt bomb

limb doubt

lamb subtle

climb crumb

thumb dumb

tomb comb

· Silent c:

scent scissors

excellent scene

excite science

except fascinate

muscle

· Silent g:

foreign resign

gnarled feign

gnat gnash

sign gnaw

reign design

gnome champagne

· Silent gh:

sight fight

might tight

weigh weight

high height

neighbour nightingale

thorough through

naughty slaughter

plough bough

straight daughter

light right

bought caught

ought thought

· Silent h:

heir heiress

honour ghost

exhibit exhaust

rhythm vehicle

vehement prohibition

whisper whistle

whale wheel

ghastly aghast

hour whip

what when

where whether

which why

forehead

· Silent k:

knock knob

knuckle knowledge

knee kneed

knit kneel

knife knot

knapsack knight

know

· Silent p:

receipt psychology

raspberry pneumatic

pseudonym cupboard

pneumonia psalm

pterodactyl

· Silent l, n, s:

half calf

palm alms

folk talk

walk stalk

almond chalk

colonel calm

could salmon

should would

autumn solemn

condemn damn

hymn column

island isle

aisle

· Silent t:

fasten wrestle

nestle listen

whistle jostle

hasten thistle

Christmas castle

bristle postpone

bustle rustle

often

· Silent w:

wreck wrath

wry wretch

wrestle awkward

wrap wriggle

playwright wrong

answer wrinkle

wrist towards

overwrought wreath

sword wretched

wring wholesome

write wrong

who whose

· Silent d:

handkerchief sandwich

Wednesday

Exercise 1

Note the following words with silent gh. Use them in sentences of your own.

sight, fight, might, tight, weigh, weight, high, height, neighbour, nightingale, thorough, through, naughty, slaughter, plough, bough, straight

Exercise 2

Fill in the blanks with the words below in the proper form.

weigh, weight, neighbour, high, height, thorough, straight.

1. He was not so large, — he... only one hundred and forty pounds. 2. When the storm was at its... the ship cracked in the raging waves. 3. Only a... analysis of the results disclosed the secret of the phenomenon. 4. He was a heavy-... champion and gave spectacular performances of physical strength. 5. The door of his..., who lives downstairs is shut like an angry face. 6. His legs in... boots supported his bulky body like columns. 7. His... answer left no room for doubt. 8. He was always very... in his observations; not a single detail escaped his attention. 9. It was a consideration that carried great... with me.

Exercise 3

Look up the pronunciation and meaning of the following words with silent h in a dictionary.

heir, heiress, honour, ghost, exhibit, exhaust, rhythm, vehicle, vehement, prohibition, forehead, whisper, whistle, whale, wheel, ghastly, aghast.

Exercise 4

Fill in the blanks with words from the list.

knit (ting), kneeling, knelt, knock, knot, knife, kneading

1. The two families are... together by common interests. 2. He... to pick up his hat. 3. The ship had been badly... about by the storm. 4. I found her... at her mother's bed. 5. She took the... from the drawer and quickly cut the loaf. 6. Our cook said that she hated... dough. 7. The old woman had an unpleasant habit of scratching her head with a... needle. 8. People were standing about in... waiting for news.

Exercise 5

Memorize the following words with silent t.

fasten, wrestle, nestle, listen, whistle, jostle, hasten, thistle, Christmas, castle, bristle, postpone, bustle, rustle.

Exercise 6

Note the following words with silent w. Look the unknown word up in a dictionary.

wreck, wrath, wry, wretch, wrestle, awkward, wrap, wriggle, playwright, wrong, answer, wrinkle, wrist, towards, overwrought, wreath, sword, wretched, wring, wholesome.

Exercise 7

Insert the appropriate word from the following:

wrap, wrath, wretched (ly), wrist (s), wrinkled, wry, wrong.

1. Soon began the service which the... outcasts had to endure as the price of their lodging. 2. There he lay for the remainder of the weary night, nursing his... and his wounded pride. 3. "You might... up the goods before you deliver them," the stranger said gruffly. 4. Oscar stared... at the page. 5. Mr. Everad's forehead... with the effort and he turned a worried face towards Miss Carter. 6. Tim came to Morley, took him by the..., and turning him about began to lead him quickly back the way he had come. 7. Henry turned to me with a... smile. 8. Max was now full of... and resentment against them. 9. She'd been walking around patting the baby until her... and ankles hurt. 10. She looked at my... face with a bright gratitude.

Capital letters

Capital letters are used at the beginning of the following kinds of words:

I proper nouns

1 names for deity, religions, religious followers, sacred books

God (used as a name) Book of Jeremiah

2 words of family relationship used as names

Uncle Pedro Father (used as a name)

3 particular places

Lake Superior the Capital Centre the South Japan, a Japanese garden

4 nationalities and their languages, races, tribes

She’s Russian. I speak German.

5 educational institutions, departments, degrees, particular courses

University of Wisconsin Geology 101

6 government departments, organizations, political parties

Environmental Protection Agency a Democrat

7 historical movements, periods, events, documents

the Enlightenment the Declaration of Independence

8 specific electronic sources

the World Wide Web, the Web the Internet, the Net

9 trade names

Kleenex

10 names of days of the week, months, and public holidays (but not usually seasons)

Our academic year begins on a Tuesday in early September, right after Labour Day.

My mother’s birthday is in early summer, on the second of June.

11 Names of school subjects are capitalised only if they are names of languages. Names of particular courses are capitalized

This semester Austin is taking math, geography, geology, French, and English.

Professor Anderson offers Modern American Fiction 501 to graduate students.

II titles of persons when used as part of a proper name

Mr Smith Professor Blake the Managing Director

Dr Jones Colonel Webb

III the first, last, and all major words in titles and subtitles of works such as books, articles, songs, and online documents

“ Gone with the Wind” “Fire and Ice” “I Want to Hold Your Hand”

IV the first word of a sentence

When lightning struck the house, the chimney collapsed.

V the first word of a quoted sentence but not a quoted phrase

In Time magazine Robert Hughes writes, ”There are only about sixty Watteau paintings on whose authenticity all experts agree.”

VI abbreviations for departments and agencies of government, other organizations, and corporations; the call letters of radio and television stations

FBI OPEC IBM KNBC-TV

VI Do not capitalize the first word after a colon unless it begins an independent clause, in which case capitalization is optional

Most of the bar’s patrons can be divided into two groups: the occasional after-work socializers and the nothing –to-go-home-to regulars.

Exercise 1

Edit the following sentences to correct errors in capitilization. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” after it.

1. District attorney Johnson was disgusted when the jurors turned in a verdict of not guilty after only one hour of deliberation.

2. Have you seen the Arena Stage production of A Raisin in the Sun?

3. Madeline is taking courses in geology, mathematics, french, and english.

4. My Grandfather and Grandmother emigrated from Lithuania in the mid-1960s.

5. I look forward every Spring to walking the flower-lined paths in Boston’s Public Garden.

6. Whenever my brother took us to the movies, he gave us three choices: A brainless beach party flick, a foreign fluff film, or a blood and lust adventure movie.

7. The grunion is an unremarkable fish except for one curious habit: It comes ashore to spawn.

8. In our family, aunt Sandra was notorious for her biting tongue.

9. Historians have described Robert E. Lee as the aristocratic south personified.

10. Because Eileen enjoys working with handicapped children, she is pursuing a degree in Special Education.

PLURAL OF NOUNS

In writing most English nouns form the plural with –s. This is true of nouns which end in most consonants and vowels –a and –e (area-areas, rope-ropes). But note these variations:

NOUN	PLURAL FORM	EXAMPLES
1.Nouns ending in consonant + y	-ies	family-families
But vowel +y	- s	tray-trays
Proper names ending in consonant + y	- s	Do you know the Kennedys? I hate Februarys.
2.Nouns ending in –ch, -s, -sh, -x, -z	-es	watch-watches, boss-bosses
But if the pronunciation of –ch is [k]	-s	patriarch-patriarchs
Nouns ending in vowel + z	-zes	quiz-quizzes, fez-fezzes
3.Nouns ending in consonant + o	-es	potato-potatoes, hero-heroes
Nouns ending in vowel + o and words from other languages	-s	radio-radios, zoo-zoos, piano-pianos, photo-photos, kilo-kilos, adagio-adagios
A few words ending in -o	-s or –es	buffalo-buffalo(e)s, mosquito-mosquito(e)s, tornado-tornado(e)s, volcano-volcano(e)s

4. The following nouns ending in f(e) have plural in –ves: calf, elf, half, knife, leave, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf.

The words dwarf, hoof, scarf, wharf have plurals in either –fs or –ves.

Other words in –f(e) form the plural in –s.

5. A few nounsform their plural by a vowel change:

foot-feet ox-oxen

child-children penny-pence

goose-geese person-people

louse-lice tooth-teeth

man-men woman-women

mouse-mice

6. Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their plural according to the rules of Greek and Latin:

analysis-analyses (L) diagnosis-diagnoses (G)

bacterium-bacteria (L) formula-formulae (L)

basis-bases (G) medium-media (L)

crisis-crises (G) phenomenon-phenomena (G)

But some follow the English rules:

dogma-dogmas formula-formulas (formulae is used by scientists)

gymnasium-gymnasiums

Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings:

appendix-appendixes or appendices (medical term)

appendix-appendices (addition(s) to a book)

index-indexes (in books); indices (in mathematics)

7. Compound nouns

a) in noun + adverb combinations, the plural –s is usually added to the noun:

passer-by – passers-by runner-up – runners-up

b) in noun + preposition + noun combinations, the plural is added to the first noun:

mother-in-law – mothers-in-law (but some people use mother-in-laws)

court-martial – courts-martial (more formal) or court- martials (less formal)

c) in noun + noun combinations, normally the last word is made plural:

boy-friend – boy-friends travel agent – travel agents

But where man and woman is prefixed both parts are made plural:

man-driver – men-drivers woman-doctor – women-doctors

8. Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural.

Deer and sheep do not change.

Fish is normally unchanged (fishes exists but is not common).

Some types of fish do not normally change in the plural:

carp, cod, mackerel, plaice, salmon, squid, trout

but if used in a plural sense, they would take a plural verb.

Others add –s:

herrings, lobsters, crabs, sardines, sharks

9. A few words do not change:

aircraft, craft, counsel

Some words ending in –s do not change:

Barracks headquarters series works (factory)

crossroads means species

Some singular uncountable nouns ending in –s have no plural:

news, billiards, draughts (and some other names of games ending in –s), measles (and some other illnesses).

Most words ending in –ics (mathematics, physics, athletics, politics) are normally singular uncountable and have no plural use.

Too much mathematics is usually taught in schools.

Some words (politics, statistics) can also have plural uses:

Politics is a complicated business.

What are your politics? (beliefs and attitudes about how government should

work)

Statistics is useful in language testing. (science)

The unemployment statistics are disturbing. (a group of numbers that represent

facts and describe the situation)

10. Plural with no singular forms:

Clothing: clothes, jeans, trousers, pyjamas, trunks, dungarees

Tools/equipment: scissors, glasses, scales, handcuffs, pliers

Others: goods, whereabouts, remains, thanks, news, stairs, proceeds

Exercise 1

Give the plural of the following nouns.

kettle, birth, bath, telephone, deed, built-in wardrobe, tree, butterfly, match, shoe, bus, glove, pie, fox, ski, taxi, bush, toe, life, photo, piano, handkerchief, roof, chief, woman, potato, goose, knife, study, tomato, thief, leaf, foot, child, mouse, deer, fish, sheep, man

calf, hero, shelf, brush, baby, fire-place, hoof, radio, mother-in-law, storey, passer-by, ox, eye, advice, knowledge, step-mother, parent-in-law

Exercise 2

Change into the plural.

1. The sheep is eating grass. 2. There is a potato on the plate. 3. The postman is always very busy. 4. The roof of this house is bad. 5. This is a lovely city. 6. The worker's family is at home. 7. My sister has long hair. 8. This man's wife is a doctor. 9. Who is this woman? 10. This piano is of the latest model. 11. That is Ann's photo. 12. This woman's husband is a good sportsman. 13. I have a bad tooth. 14. This baby's toy is here. 15. He is our chief. 16. The deer is a beautiful animal. 17. His son-in-law is sitting here. 18. The key is on the shelf. 19. Her brother-in-law is an engineer.

Exercise 3

Translate the following.

1. (i) Советы давать легко, но очень трудно следовать им. (ii) Позвольте мне дать вам совет. (iii) Обратитесь к нему, он, как правило, дает хорошие советы. 2. (i) Что нового? (ii) Это старые новости, я их уже давно слышал. (iii) Какая прекрасная новость; дома обрадуются, когда услышат ее. 3. (i) — Где деньги? — Они на столе. (ii) Я не могу дать тебе много денег. Двадцать пять рублей устроят тебя (достаточно)? 4. (i) Эта книга содержит все сведения о последней экспедиции Беринга. (ii) Новые сведения еще не поступили; мы ждем их с минуты на минуту. 5. (i) Он ищет работу. (ii) Это очень трудная работа. Она не сможет сделать ее самостоятельно. (iii) Я хочу быть откровенен с вами. Мне не нравится, как вы сделали эту работу. (iiii) Он не собирается менять место работы. Здесь ему и работа по душе, и коллектив. 6. (i) — Вы хорошо отдохнули за городом? — Да, была чудесная погода, и мы большую часть времени были на воздухе. (ii) В этом году с погодой происходит что-то странное. У нас раньше никогда не было дождливой погоды в декабре. (iii) Я надеюсь, погода не изменится к худшему; я оставила плащ и зонт дома. 7. Он сделал большие успехи за последнее время. Я знаю, что его преподаватель очень доволен им.

Exercise 4

State the number of the following nouns and give the corresponding singular or plural, if any.

brethren, memoranda, antenna, means, scissors, school-inspector, pence, Frenchman, Roman, sanatoria, cafeteria, strata, vertebra, automata, fish, photo, axes, physics, mechanics, cloth, commander-in-chief, works, forget-me-not, swine, halves, staff, sleeves, grief, mice, species, governor-general, contents, sledges, business, knowledge, feet, corps, phenomena, clothes, bases, headquarters, Japanese, nebula

Exercise 5

Change the number of the noun in bold type where possible and make all other necessary changes.

1. The boy drove many sheep in the direction of the village. 2. During the festival I made friends with many foreign delegates. Among them were a Swiss, a Negro, a German, a Frenchman and others. 3. I was presented with a dozen handkerchiefs. 4. The boy must have two teeth pulled out. 5. The hunter got a prize for killing the wolf that had caused much damage to the village flock. 6. The child was bitterly crying over the broken toy. 7. The factory club bought a 'cello for their orchestra. 8. He showed me a photo of his country house. 9. She gave the dog a fish. 10. This tea is of a fine flavour. 11. The scout brought some valuable information. 12. I bought a pair of nylon gloves. 13. I saw a mouse in the kitchen. 14. The ox drove a cart of hay. 15. A very strange phenomenon was observed by astronomers yesterday. 16. Her hair was soft and curly.

Agreement between subject and verb

· In English the verb usually agrees with the subject even if the verb is separated from its subject by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, brackets or commas:

The petrol station across the road from the new shops has just cut its prices.

However, if the verb is a long way from the subject but is closer to a complement, it is possible to agree the verb with the complement. Compare:

The most exciting event was the rowing finals.

The most exciting event in the Sydney Olympics for most British viewers

was/were the rowing finals.

The same can apply after what used to introduce a relative:

What the Board needs to address is/are the terms of the redundancies.

· We usually use a plural verb with two subjects linked by and or both … and:

Mum and Dad were hoping that you’d join them this evening.

Both the doctor and the surgeon have advised me to have my gall bladder out.

However, we use a singular verb if we consider the two items as one concept.

Fish and chips is one of the most common English dishes.

Other phrases like this include meat pie and peas, and research and development.

· Titles of books, films, etc. take a singular verb, even if they are plural nouns:

Hitchcock’s film ‘The Birds” is based on a story by Daphne du Maurier.

· When we link two items by or, the verb usually agrees with the second of the items:

Either my brother or my parents are going to bring the sleeping bags.

· When a subject is made up of two or more items joined by (either)…or… or (neither)…nor… we use a singular verb if the last item is singular (although a plural verb is sometimes used in informal English), and a plural verb if it is plural:

Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet. (or … are in informal

English)

Neither the president nor his representatives are to attend the meeting.

If the last item is singular and the previous item plural, we can use a singular or a plural verb:

Either the teachers or the principal is/are to blame for the accident.

· Words that come between a subject and its verb, e.g. together with, in addition to, along with, as well as, do not change the number of the subject:

Wallpaper in addition to new curtains has been ordered.

The president together with his assistants has left for Washington.

· A plural subjectdescribing a single entity, e.g. measurement, amount, quantity can take a singular verb:

Two metres isn’t particularly tall these days.

Twenty-four hours is a long time in politics.

· We can use either a singular or a plural verb with most collective nouns, i.e. nouns referring to a group of people, animals or things, e.g. association, audience, band, class, club, college, committee, community, company, crowd, department, electorate, enemy, family, firm, generation, government, group, staff, team, jury, orchestra, population, press, public, school, university. A singular verb presents the collective noun as a ‘whole’ entity:

The family has agreed that the funeral should be held in Ireland.

A plural verb presents the noun as a group of individuals, e.g. family members:

The family are all gathering here for Christmas.

A large number of proper nouns fall into this category, e.g. the United Nations, the Bank of England, the BBC, IBM, Sony:

The United Nations has agreed to deploy a peacekeeping force.

The United Nations are in disagreement on this issue.

Unlike British English, US English prefers a singular verb in these cases. In British English a singular verb is preferred after a collective noun if it is used with the indefinite rather than definite article:

A team of inspectors is visiting the prison tomorrow afternoon.

A few collective nouns always take a plural verb, e.g. c attle, police, people, staff:

The police are investigating his accusation of fraud.

The noun whereabouts can be used with either a singular or plural verb.

· An adjective used as a collective noun always takes a plural verb:

The middle-aged have a lot to offer.

· Some nouns are usually plural and take a plural verb. These include belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, jeansoutskirts, pants, particulars (=information), pliers, premises (=building), riches, savings, scissors, stairs, sunglasses,surroundings, thanks, trousers, tweezers:

The company’s earnings have increased for the last five years.

· Some uncountable nouns end in –s but take a singular verb. These often concern illness (measles, mumps), sport (aerobics, gymnastics) or study (mathematics, politics):

German measles is particularly dangerous illness for pregnant women.

Politics is a topic best avoided with people you don’t know well.

Other words like these include means (=’method’ or ‘money’), news, economics, linguistics, phonetics, statistics, physics, diabetes, rabies. However compare:

Academic disciplines	general use
Politics is popular at this university.	Her politics arebordering on the fascist.
Statistics was always my worst subject.	Statistics are able to prove anything you want them to. (=numerical information)
Economics has only recently been recognised as a scientific study.	The economics behind her policies are unreasonable.

· After per cent (also percent or %) we use a singular verb:

An inflation rate of only 2 per cent makes a big difference to exports.

Around 10 per cent of the forest is destroyed each year.

However, in phrases where we can use of + plural noun we use a plural verb:

I would say that about 50 per cent of the houses need major repairs.

Of those interviewed, only 20 per cent (=of people interviewed) admit to smoking.

But where we use a singular noun that can be thought of either as a whole unit or a collection of individuals, we can use a singular or plural verb:

Some 80 per cent of the electorate is / are expected to vote.

· With everyone, everybody, everything (and similar words beginning with any-,some- and no-) we use a singular verb:

Practically everyone thinks that Judith should be given the job.

With any of, each of, either of, neither of, or none of and a plural noun we can use a singular or plural verb. However, it is preferable to use a singular verb in careful written English:

I don’t think any of them knows/know where the money is hidden.

Neither of the French athletes has/have won this year.

With a/the majority of, a number of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), or some (of) and a plural noun we use a plural verb. But if we say the number of, we use a singular verb:

A number of refugees have been turned back at the border.

The number of books in the library has risen to over five million.

With any of, none of, the majority of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of) and an uncountable noun we use a singular verb:

All the furniture was destroyed in the fire.

With each and every and a singular noun we use a singular verb:

Every room has its own bathroom.

Compare:

The boys have each drawn a picture.

· Nouns for nationality that end with –ese, -ch, or –sh may be singular or plural depending on their meaning. Some of these words are Chinese, French, English, etc. When the word refers to a language, it takes a singular verb. When the word refers to the people of the country, it takes a plural verb and is preceded by the article the:

French is a Romance language.

The French are romantic.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences write the verb in brackets in the space either as a singular verb or plural verb so that it agrees with the main noun.

1. The issues which have been considered in the previous section _____ us to speculate on problems that learners might encounter. (allow)

2. Smuggling illegal immigrants out of Mexico _____ against the law. (be)

3. The country’s first general election since it won independence _____ to be held next month. (be)

4. The only people who are interested in the book _____ to be lawyers. (seem)

5. The view of the manufacturing and tourist industries _____ that the economy is improving. (be)

6. An early analysis of the results _____ that the Socialists have won. (show)

7. Reliance only on written tests of English to measure language ability _____ to be a chip option. (appear)

8. Unlike Americans who seem to prefer coffee, the English _____ a great deal of tea. (drink)

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences with either was/were or has/have. If both forms are possible, write them both.

1. The crowd ____ growing restless as the day got hotter.

2. Sony ____ announced rising profits for the third year running.

3. The police ____ issued a warrant for Adamson’s arrest.

4. When she was found, her face was bruised and her clothes ____ torn.

5. The public ____ a right to know how the money is to be spent.

6. Thomas was thought to be in Spain, although his exact whereabouts ____ unknown.

7. The stairs leading to the exit ____steep and dangerous, said the reporter.

8. Lord Travers’ family ____ lived in he house for twelve generations.

9. The college ____ spent over £500,000 on a new sports centre.

10. People ____ running in all directions, trying to get away.

11. Jaws, a movie about sharks, ____ seen by a record number of people.

12. The screwdriver along with the pliers ____ left out in the rain.

Exercise 3

Correct any mistakes in these sentences. If a sentence is correct, write ‘correct’ after it.

1. The island’s politics is complex, with over twelve parties competing for power.

2. Gymnasts from over forty countries are competing in Madrid this weekend.

3. Economics has become an increasingly popular course at university.

4. The latest news of the earthquake survivors are very disturbing.

5. Jim’s politics has changed considerably since he was in his twenties.

6. Diabetes are an illness caused by too much sugar in the blood.

7. Recent government statistics show a sharp decline in crime.

8. Women’s gymnastics are no longer dominated by eastern Europeans.

9. Statistics are now compulsory for all students taking a course in engineering.

10. Most years, over three hundred athletes competes in the games.

11. The economics of the plan is worrying investors.

12. Measles is still a fairly serious childhood disease in some countries.

Exercise 4

Complete the sentences with either is/are or has/have. If both forms are possible, write them both.

1. A number of shoppers ____ complained about the price increases.

2. I can assure you that everything ____ perfectly safe.

3. Either of the dentists ____available. Which one do you want to see?

4. The majority of primary school teachers ____ women.

5. Each of Susan’s colleagues ____ sent her a personal letter of support.

6. Although some people find cricket boring, each match ____ different.

7. We’ve got two cars, but neither of them ____ particularly new.

8. All of the office staff ____ agreed to work late tonight to get the job finished.

9. A lot of the pollution ____ caused by the paper factory on the edge of town.

10. None of the TV programmes ____ worth watching tonight.

11. Researchers have reported that neither of the so-call ‘environmentally friendly’ fuels ____ less damaging than petrol or diesel.

12. I hope everyone ____ a good holiday. See you next term.

13. The number of pupils in school with reading difficulties ____ fallen this year.

14. Some people ____ the strangest hobbies. My brother collects bottles!

15. None of the information ____ particularly useful to me.

16. Nylon, like orlon ____ synthetic.

17. The English ____ well known for their love of tea.

18. The young deer ____ staying near their mothers.

Exercise 5

Read this extract from an announcement. Make any necessary corrections to the parts of the verb to be.

The new premises we plan to occupy in Camford are now being built. The outskirts of this city is an ideal site for a company like ours. Research and development are an important part of our work, and next year fifty per cent of our budget are to be spent on our Camford centre. Some of our staff in the US are being asked to relocate, and eventually around ten per cent of our US workforce are to move to Britain. However, the majority of our new employees is to be recruited locally, and we think that the local community are going to benefit enormously from this development. A number of business leaders and the local Member of Parliament is being invited to a meeting next week. Unfortunately, neither the Company President nor he Managing Director of Macroworth is available to address that meeting, but I and other senior managers am to attend.

Exercise 6

Write sentences from these notes every time starting with either. Choose is or are as the verb in each case. If you can use either is or are,put both.

Example: Prime Minister / her deputy / opening the debate

Either the Prime Minister or her deputy is opening the debate.

1. Tom / his friends / going to clean the car

2. the children / their mother / delivering the letters

3. the management / the workers / going to have to give way in the disagreement

Exercise 7

Fill the gaps in these sentences with a, an, nothing (-) or the correct form of a suitable verb. If there are two possible answers, put both possibilities.

1. Have you put ____ pepper in this dish? I like plenty of seasoning.

2. What he’d really like us to buy him for his birthday ____ some new Nike trainers.

3. Rickets ____ a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin D.

4. I first felt the desire to visit Venice when looking at ____ painting by Canaletto.

5. You can’t hold a classical concert in the village hall; the acoustics ____terrible!

6. A large number of police officers ____ present at the demonstration last week in case of trouble.

7. At present 10,000 kilometres ____ the longest walking competition held in the Olympics.

8. ‘What have we got for supper?’ ‘Salmon. I got ____ huge fish at the fishmonger’s for only five pounds.’

9. Either the twins or John, the eldest brother, ____ going to make a speech at the Golden Wedding party.

10. My brother thinks that economics ____ really interesting. I disagree.

11. Saudi Arabia, along with most of the oil-producing nations, ____ voted to raise the price of crude oil again.

12. That band ____ always had a reputation for performing better in the studio than live.

13. Both my brother and sister ____ lived in this town all their lives.

14. We developed ____ passion for Baroque music at university.

15. Roast beef and Yorkshire pudding ____ definitely still the favourite of many British people!

Exercise 1

HOMONYMS

Homonyms can be subdivided into homographs and homophones. Homographs are words which are written in the same way but have different meanings. Compare bow in He took a bow [baV] at the end of the concert and He was wearing a bow [bqV] tie. Homophones are words which are pronounced in the same way but are spelt differently, e.g. bow as in He took a bow and bough, the bough of a tree.

Here are some more examples of homographs.

She needs to find somewhere to live. [lIv]

The club has live music most nights. [laIv]

Some children can read and write before they go to school. [rJd]

I read about the accident in the local paper. [red]

I tried to lead the discussion back to the main issue. [lJd]

Lead is a heavy soft grey metal, used especially in the past for water pipes or to cover roofs. [led]

The trees were swaying in the wind. [wInd]

Wind the bandage around your finger. [waInd]

The path wound down to the beach. [waVnd]

He died from the wound he had received to his chest. [wHnd]

She left him after a blazing row. [raV]

Some students at Oxford spend more time learning to row well than studying. [rqV]

She’ll be able to put her languages to good use in her new job. [jHs]

I have some information you may be able to use. [jHz]

What time do you leave the house in the morning? [haVs]

We can house you for a day or two. [haVz]

You cannot make a silk purse out of a sow 's ear. [saV]

If you sow the wind, you may reap the whirlwind. [sqV]

The nurse dressed and bathed the younger children in the family. [bRTt]

The moon bathed the countryside in a silver light. [beIDd]

Here are some of the many examples of homophones in English. Copy them and look up their meaning in the dictionary:

allowed – aloud; air – heir;

be – bee; bare – bear; bean – been; beat – beet; beach – beech; birth – berth; berry – bury; blue – blew; boar – bore; bow – bough; bread – bred; brake – break; by – bye – buy;

cell – sell; cent – sent – scent; course – coarse; current – current;

dear – deer; die – dye; dew – due; dough – doe;

fare – fair; father – farther; faze – phase; feat – feet; fir – fur; floe – flow; flower – flour; flu – flew; forth – fourth; for – four – fore;

gait – gate; great – grate; grown – groan;

hair – hare; heal – heel; hear – here; hoarse – horse; hole – whole; hour – our;

its – it’s;

knead – need; key – quay;

lain – lane; lays – laze; lead – led;

maid – made; mail – male; main – mane; meat – meet; might – mite; minor – miner; mown – moan;

night – knight;

pale – pail; pane – pain; peal – peel; pear – pair – pare; piece – peace; place – plaice; plane – plain; practise – practice; pray – prey;

raise – rays; read – reed; rain – reign – rein; right – rite – write; ring – wring; road – rode – rowed; root- route; rough – ruff;

sale – sail; sea – see; seen – scene; sent – scent; sew – sow; sheer – shear; sight – site; sole – soul; some – sum; son – sun; sort – sought; stare – stair; steak - stake; steel – steal;

tale – tail; tea – tee; there – their – they’re; through – threw; tire – tyre; toe – tow;

vein – vain – vane;

waist – waste; wait – weight; week – weak; weigh – way; where – wear – ware; whether – weather; whine – wine; witch – which; write – wright – righ

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