American and British Spelling

These two varieties of English are very similar. There are a few differences of grammar and spelling, and rather more differences of vocabulary and idiom. Modern British English is heavily influenced by American English, so some of the contrasts are disappearing. Pronunciation is sometimes very different, but most American and British speakers can understand each other without great difficulty.

Below is a list showing differences between American and British spelling of common words. An asterisk indicates that the pronunciation differs as well as spelling. A plus sign indicates a British usage that is, apparently, not known in North America.

American	British	Notes
aluminum *	aluminium
analog	analogue
anesthesia	anaesthesia
archeology	archaeology
boro	borough	"boro" is informal and is sometimes seen in British road markings. In Scotland the word is "burgh" but it is pronounced "burr" or, sometimes, "borough" NOT "berg".
bylaw	bye law
catalog	catalogue
center	centre
color	colour
curb	kerb	Edge of roadway or pavement, "curb" in the sense of "restrain" is used in British and American English.
defense	defence
dialog	dialogue
donut	doughnut	"donut" is informal and is quite commonly used in BE to suggest that the bun is of a typical American character.
draft	draught
encyclopedia	encyclopaedia
favorite	favourite
gage	gauge +	American usage may be obsolete
gray	grey
gynecology	gynaecology
hauler	haulier
honor	honour
humor	humour
jewelry	jewellery
license	licence	British usage is license for the verb and licence for the noun
maneuver	manoeuvre
meter	metre	British usage is "meter" for a measuring device and "metre" for the unit of length
mold	mould
mustache	moustache
nite	night	"nite" is informal in both AE and BE.
omelet	omelette
pajamas US	pyjamas
practice	practise	British usage is "practise" for the verb and "practice" for the noun
program	programme	British usage is "program" for computers and "programme" for television or radio.
routing	routeing
specialty	speciality
story	storey	of building
sulfur	sulphur +	According to a correspondent the American spelling is now "official" British spelling for use by professional chemists but it is unlikely to be recognised by any other British English speaker.
thru	through +	American usage is obsolescent but may still be seen on road signs etc.,
tire	tyre	part of wheel in contact with road
vise	vice	Tool

Generally American English -or as a word ending is equivalent to -our in British English, American -er as a word ending is sometimes equivalent to -re in British English. In American English the final e is removed from verbs before adding -ing, in correct British English this is not done giving "routeing" (British) and "routing" (American), however the American practice of dropping the "e" is becoming quite common in British English. If a verb ends in a single T then the American -ing, -ed and -er forms also have a single T whereas the British forms have a double '11'. For example American English has signaler, signaling and signaled whereas British English has signaller, signalling and signalled. American English tends to prefer -ize and -ization whereas British English prefers -ise and -isalion contrary to statements by certain well-known British authorities.

Canadian spelling seems to be intermediate between the British and American (US) forms but is generally closer to British practice. There are variations from province to province. A quiet half-hour spent perusing the Vancouver Yellow Pages suggested that "aluminium", "gauge", "jewellery" and "mould" are preferred. [OK -I know there are better things to do in Vancouver!]. Some correspondents have suggested that Canadians normally use "aluminum".

There are, of course, exceptions to the above rules. American usage is "glamour" not "glamor" and "advertising" not "advertizing". British usage has "honorary" and "honorific" without the "u". Several correspondents have also noted that the British usages "centre" and "theatre" are displacing the American usages, particularly where the establishment in question wants to suggest that it is of superior quality.

When spelling out words (and 'phone numbers) it is British practice to say things such as "double e" for "ee" and "treble 3" for "333".

Please note that "tonne" is nota British spelling of "ton" but a quite separate metric unit equal to 1000 kg as distinct from the British ton of 2240 lbs (= 1016.96 kg).

WORD BUILDING

Suffixes –en and –ness

-en makes adjectives from nouns (woollen jumper, golden hair) but it also makes verbs from adjectives:

to moisten your lips, to sweeten tea, a situation worsens, a face reddens

-ness makes abstract nouns from adjectives:

impoliteness, madness, suddenness

Exercise 1

Suffixes –able, -ible

-able can be used productively, whereas –ible never is. It combines with verbs to form adjectives. Note that –able means ‘can be’:

a washable jacket is one that can be washed, disposable nappies, predictable results, avoidable problems, a manageable situation

Here are some adjectives with the suffix –ible

audible, compatible, forcible, incredible, possible, terrible, sensible

Exercise 1

Suffixes – er, -or

-er and -or make nouns from verbs with the meaning ‘a person who does something’: teacher, driver, ‘machine, instrument performing some operation’: blender, dishwasher.

When –er is added to nouns or adjectives, the corresponding nouns mean ‘a person concerned with something: geographer, a person born at that place: New Yorker.

There are some nouns with the suffix –or which cannot be traced to any verb used in English or are formed from verbs which are rarely used. Here are some of these words

ancestor, author, bachelor, benefactor, debtor, doctor, emperor, major, mayor, orator, perambulator, predecessor, proprietor, rector, sailor, sculptor, spectator, senator, tailor, traitor, warrior.

Exercise 1

Suffixes –ant, -ance

-ant is most familiar as an adjective ending (relevant information, distant hills) but it can also make nouns from verbs to describe a person:

an applicant for a job, an insurance claimant, a police informant, a quiz contestant, an occupant of a house

-ance makes nouns from verbs:

attendance, assistance, guidance, utterance

Exercise 1

Suffixes –ent, -ence, -ency

-ent occurs in adjectives (different, intelligent, violent), -ence, -ency in nouns (difference, insistence, insistency)

Exercise 1

Suffixes –ous, eous, ious, uous

-ous, eous, ious, uous make adjectives from nouns. The adjectives with these suffixes have the meaning ‘full of’, ‘of the nature, character or appearance of’:

dangerous, nervous, ridiculous, courageous, advantageous, furious, studious, ambiguous, continuous

Exercise 1

Prefixes en-, em

en- and em- have the following meanings: ‘make (into)’ enable, enrich, ‘wrap in, wrap up’ embrace, enclose, ‘put in’ enchain, enfold. However, in many cases the meaning of the prefixes is hard to define.

Exercise 1

Prefixes in-, im-, il-, ir-

in-, im-, ir-, il- have two meanings: (1) ‘not’: incomprehensible, indiscreet; (2) ‘want, lack, absence of’: injustice, inability.

Remember: ir- is used in the words beginning with ‘r’; im- is used in the words beginning with ‘b’, ‘m’, ‘p’; il- is used in the words beginning with ‘l’:

i rresponsible, illogical, imbalance, immaterial, impossible

Exercise 1

Put one of the above prefixes in each space in the phrases below to make the word which follows it opposite in meaning.

an ___resistible temptation	an ___possible plan
an ___legal business deal	an ___accurate calculation
an ___mature young man	an ___moral action
an ___convenient arrangement	an ___logical answer
an ___responsible boy	an ___patient motorist
an ___secure feeling	an ___relevant question
an ___polite letter	an ___literate person
___frequent buses	___legible handwriting
an ___curable illness	an___regular train service
an ___dependent country	___formal clothes
an ___replaceable work of art	an ___expensive present

Prefix de-

The prefix de- imparts to the affixed word the following meanings: ‘deprive of, rid of, rid of the character of’; ‘reverse, undo’ – what is denoted by the verb:

The countryside is becoming deforested so quickly that soon there’ll be no trees left at all.

The train became derailed at 60 miles per hour but no one was seriously hurt.

The villages are becoming depopulated as more and more people move to the cities.

Exercise 1

Make up your own sentences with the following words.

Decode, defame, dethrone, decentralize, decivilize, demobilize, deform, describe, destruction.

Prefix dis-

The prefix dis- imparts to the affixed words an opposite or negative meaning:

disagree, disarm, disadvantage, discomfort

Exercise 1

Form new words from those given below using the prefix dis-.

a ___respectful pupil	a ___honest shopkeeper
a ___satisfied customer	a ___united party
to ___obey an order	to ___believe a story
to ___agree with someone	to ___approve of someone
to ___like cheese	to ___appear round the corner
to ___cover buried treasure	to ___trust a politician

PUNCTUATION

The full stop

To end sentences

A full stop is used to close a sentence

I looked out of the window. It was snowing again.

· In abbreviations

Full stops (US “periods”) are normal in American English. In British English they are becoming less common.

Dr. Andrew C. Burke, M.A. or Dr Andrew C Burke, MA

A full stop is not used in U.S. Postal Service abbreviations for states:

MD TX CA

Some abbreviations are made from the first letters of several words. This often happens with the names of organisations. Ordinary a full stop is not used in these abbreviations.

NATO UNESCO the BBC IBM

The question mark

Obviously a direct question should be followed by a question mark.

Why do we try to reach the stars? What is it all for?

If a polite request is written in the form of a question, it may be followed by a full stop.

Would you please send me your catalog of lilies.

Do not use a question mark after an indirect question.

He asked me who was teaching the mythology course.

Questions in a series may be followed by question marks even when they are not complete sentences.

We wondered where Calamity had hidden this time. Under the sink? Behind the

furnace? On top of the bookcase?

The exclamation mark

Use an exclamation mark after a word group or sentence that expresses exceptional feeling or deserves special emphasis.

When Gloria entered the room, I switched on the lights and we all yelled,

“Surprise!”

Do not overuse the exclamation mark.

Exercise 1

Add appropriate end punctuation in the following paragraph.

Although I am generally rational, I am superstitious I never walk under ladders or put shoes on the table If I spill the salt, I go into frenzied callisthenics picking up the grainsand tossing them over my left shoulder As a result of these curious activities, I’ve always wondered whether knowing the roots of superstitions would quell my irrational responses Superstition has it, for example, that one should never place a hat on the bed This superstition arises from a time when head lice were quite common and placing a guest’s hat on the bed stood a good chance of spreading lice through the host’s bed Doesn’t this make good sense And doesn’t it stand to reason that if I know that my guests don’t have lice I shouldn’t care where their hats go Of course it does It is fair to ask,then, whether I have changed my ways and place hats on beds Are you kidding I wouldn’t put a hat on a bed if my life depended on it

Quotation marks

· Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.

Looking straight at her, he said, ”There’s no way we can help him, is there?”

In dialogue, begin a new paragraph to mark a change in speaker.

“Mom, his name is Willie, not William. A thousand times I’ve told

you, it’s Willie.”

“Willie is a derivative of William, Lester. Surely his birth certificate

doesn’t have Willie on i, and I like calling people by their proper names.”

“Yes, it does, ma’am. My mother named me Willie K. Mason.”

Gloria Naylor

If a single speaker utters more than one paragraph, introduce each paragraph with quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the speech.

· Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

“His last words,” said Albert, “were ‘Get that woman out of here.’”

· Use quotation marks around the titles of short works: newspaper and magazine articles, poems, short stories, songs, episodes of television and radio programs, and chapters and subdivisions of books.

Katherine Mansfield’s “The Garden Party” provoked a lovely discussion in our short-story class last night.

Titles of books, plays, Web sites, television and radio programs, films, magazines, and newspapers are put in italics or underlined.

· Quotation marks may be used to set off words used as words.

Although words used as words are ordinarily italicized, quotation marks are also acceptable. Just be sure to follow consistent practice throughout a paper.

The words “accept” and “except” are frequently confused.

The words accept and except are frequently confused.

· Use punctuation with quotation marks according to convention.

Full stops and commas

Place full stops and commas inside quotation marks.

“This is a stick-up,” said the well-dressed young couple. “We want all your

money.”

This rule applies to single quotation marks as well as double quotation marks. It also applies to all uses of quotation marks: for quoted material, for titles of works, and for words used as words.

Colons and semicolons

Put colons and semicolons outside quotation marks.

Harold wrote, ”I regret that I am unable to attend the fund-raiser for AIDS

Research”; his letter, however, came with a substantial contribution.

Question marks and exclamation marks

Put question marks and exclamation marks inside quotation marks unless they apply to the whole sentence.

Contrary to tradition, bedtime at my house is marked by “Mommy, can I tell you

a story now?”

Have you heard the old proverb “Do not climb the hill until you reach it”?

In the first sentence, the question mark applies only to the quoted question. In the second sentence, the question mark applies to the whole sentence.

Introducing quoted material

FORMAL INTRODUCTION

If a quotation has been formally introduced, a colon is appropriate. A formal introduction is a full independent clause, not just an expression such as he said or she remarked.

Morrow views personal ads in the classifieds as an art form: “The personal ad is

like a haiku of self-celebration, a brief solo played on one’s own horn.”

EXPRESSIONS SUCH AS HE SAID

If a quotation is introduced with an expression such as he said or she remarked – or if it is followed by such an expression – a comma is needed.

Stephan Leacock once said, “I am a great believer in luck, and I find the harder I

work the more I have of it.”

“You can be a little ungrammatical if you come from the right part of the

country,” writes Robert Frost.

BLENDED QUOTATION

When a quotation is blended into the writer’s own sentence, either a comma or no punctuation is appropriate, depending on the way in which the quotation fits into the sentence structure.

The future champion could, as he put it, “float like a butterfly and sting like a

bee.”

Charles Hudson notes that the prisoners escaped “by squeezing through a tiny

window eighteen feet above the floor of their cell.”

BEGINNING OF SENTENCE

If a quotation appears at the beginning of a sentence, set it off with a comma unless the quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation mark.

“We shot them like dogs,” boasted Davy Crockett, who was among Jackson’s

troops.

“What is it?” I asked, bracing myself.

INTERRUPTED QUOTATION

If a quoted sentence is interrupted by explanatory words, use commas to set off the explanatory words.

“A great many people think they are thinking,” observed William James, “when

they are merely rearranging their prejudices.”

If two successive quoted sentences from the same source are interrupted by explanatory words, use a comma before the explanatory words and a full stop after them.

“I was a flop as a daily reporter,” admitted E. B. White. “Every piece had to be a masterpiece – and before you knew it, Tuesday was Wednesday.”

Exercise 1

Add or delete quotation marks as needed and make any other necessary changes in punctuation in the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” after it.

1. As for the advertisement “Sailors have more fun”, if you consider chipping paint and swabbing decks fun, then you will have plenty of it.

2. Even after forty minutes of discussion, our class could not agree on an interpretation of Robert Frost’s “The Road Not Taken.”

3. After winning the lottery, Juanita said that “she would give half the money to charity.”

4. After the movie Vicki said, “The reviewer called this flick “trash of the first order.” I guess you can’t believe everything you read.”

5. “Cleaning your house while your kids are still growing,” quipped Phyllis Diller, “is like shovelling the walk before it stops snowing.”

6. “Order in the court! Order in the court!”, shouts the judge, banging her wooden spoon on the kitchen table.

7. “Kick the tires and light the fires” exclaimed the pilot, giving me my cue to start the engines.

8. Gloria Steinem once twisted an old proverb like this, ”A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.”

9. “Even when freshly washed and relieved of all obvious confections,” says Fran Lebowitz,” children tend to be sticky.

10. Have you heard the Cowboy Junkies’ rendition of Hank Williams’s “I’m So Lonesome I Could Cry?”

The comma

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses.

When a coordinating conjunction connects two or more independent clauses a comma must precede it. There are seven coordinating conjunction in English: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.

A comma tells readers that one independent clause has come to a close and that another is about to begin.

Nearly everyone has heard of love at first sight, but I fell in love at first dance.

Exception: If the two independent clauses are short and there is no danger of misreading, the comma may be omitted.

The plane took off and we were on our way.

Caution: As a rule, do not use a comma to separate coordinate word groups that are not independent clauses.

A good money manager controls expenses and invests surplus dollars to meet future needs.

The word group following and is not an independent clause; it is the second half of a compound predicate.

Marie Curie discovered radium and later applied her work on radioactivity to medicine.

And links two verbs in a compound predicate: discovered and applied.

Jake still doesn’t realize that his illness is serious and that he will have to alter his diet to improve his chances of survival.

And links two subordinate clauses, each beginning with that.

Use a comma after an introductory clause or phrase.

The most common introductory word groups are clauses and phrases functioning as adverbs. Such word groups usually tell when, where, how, why, or under what conditions the main action of the sentence occurred.

A comma tells readers that the introductory clause or phrase has come to a close and the main part of the sentence is about to begin.

When Irwin was ready to eat, his cat jumped onto the table.

Without the comma, readers may have Irwin eating his cat. The comma signals

that his cat is the subject of a new clause, not part of the introductory one.

Near a small stream at the bottom of the canyon, the park rangers discovered an abandoned mine.

The comma tells readers that the introductory prepositional phrase has come to a close.

Exception: The comma may be omitted after a short adverb clause or phrase if there is no danger of misreading.

In no time we were at 2,800 feet.

Caution: Do not use a comma after a phrase that begins an inverted sentence.

In an inverted sentence, the subject follows the verb, and a phrase that ordinarily would follow the verb is moved to the beginning.

At the bottom of the sound lies a ship laden with treasure.

Do not use a comma to set off a concluding adverb clause that is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Adverb clauses beginning with after, as soon as, because, before, if, since, unless, until, and when are usually essential.

Don’t visit Paris at the height of the tourist season –unless you have booked hotel reservations.

Without the unless clause, the meaning of the sentence might at first seem broader than the writer intended.

When a concluding adverb clause is nonessential, it should be preceded by a comma. Clauses beginning with although, even though, though, and whereas are usually nonessential.

The lecture seemed to last only a short time, although the clock said it had gone on for more than an hour.

Sentences also frequently begin with participial phrases describing the noun or pronoun immediately following them. The comma tells readers that they are about to learn the identity of the person or thing described; therefore, the comma is usually required even when the phrase is short.

Thinking his motorcade drive through Dallas was routine, President Kennedy smiled and waved at the crowds.

Buried under layers of younger rocks, the earth’s oldest rocks contain no fossils.

Note: Other introductory word groups include transitional expressions and absolute phrases (see point 6).

.

Exercise 1.

Add or delete commas where necessary in the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” after it.

- Because it rained all Labor Day our picnic was rather soggy.

- Alisa brought the injured bird home, and fashioned a splint out of Popsicle sticks for its wing.

- Considered the first Western philosopher Thales believed that water was the elemental principle underlying all things.

- If you complete the enclosed card, and return it within two weeks, you will receive a free breakfast during your stay.

- After retiring from the New York City Ballet in 1965, legendary dancer Maria Talchief went on to found the Chicago City Ballet.

- Uncle Swen’s dulcimers disappeared as soon as he put them up for sale but he always kept one for himself.

- When the runaway race car crashed the gas tank exploded.

- He pushed the car beyond the tollgate, and poured a bucket of water on the smoking bonnet.

- Lighting the area like a second moon the helicopter circled the scene.

- As the concert began, we heard a tremendous explosion.

- Many musicians of Bach’s time played several instruments but few mastered them as early or played with as much expression as Bach.

Use a comma between all items in a series.

When three or more items are presented in a series, those items should be separated from one another with commas. Items in a series may be single words, phrases, or clauses.

Bubbles of air, leaves, ferns, bits of wood, and insects are often found trapped in amber.

Although some writers view the comma between the last two items as optional, most experts advise using the comma because its omission can result in ambiguity or misreading.

Uncle David willed me all his property, houses, and warehouses.

Did Uncle David will his property and houses and warehouses – or simply his property, consisting of houses and warehouses? If the former meaning is intended, a comma is necessary to prevent ambiguity.

The activities include a search for lost treasure, dubious financial dealings, much

discussion of ancient heresies, and midnight orgies.

Without the comma, the activities seem to include discussing orgies, not participating in them. The comma makes it clear that midnight orgies is a separate item in the series.

Caution: Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.

Other causes of asthmatic attacks are_ stress, change in temperature, humidity, and cold air.

Ironically, this job that appears so glamorous, carefree, and easy_ carries a high degree of responsibility.

4. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and. Do not use comma between cumulative adjectives.

When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately, they are coordinate.

Roberto is a warm, gentle affectionate father.

Adjectives are coordinated if they can be joined with and (warm and gentle and affectionate).

Adjectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative.

Three large grey shapes moved slowly toward us.

Beginning with the adjective closest to the noun shapes, these modifiers lean on one another, piggyback style, with each modifying a larger word group. Grey modifies shapes, large modifies grey shapes, and three modifies large grey shapes. We cannot insert the word and between cumulative adjectives (three and large and grey shapes).

Coordinate adjectives

Patients with severe, irreversible brain damage should not be put on life support

systems.

Adjectives are coordinate if they can be connected with and: severe and irreversible.

Cumulative adjectives

Ira ordered a rich chocolate layer cake.

Ira didn’t order a cake that was rich and chocolate and layer: He ordered a layer cake that was chocolate, a chocolate layer cake that was rich.

In the corner of the closet we found an old maroon hatbox from Sears.

Caution: A comma should never be used between an adjective and the noun that follows

it.

It was a senseless, dangerous_ mission.

Nor should a comma be used between an adverb and an adjective that follows it.

The Hurst Home is unsuitable as a mental facility for severely_ disturbed youths.

Exercise 2.

Add or delete commas where necessary in the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write “correct” after it.

1. We gathered our essentials took off for the great outdoors and ignored the fact that it was Friday the 13^th.

2. The cold impersonal atmosphere of the university was unbearable.

3. The ambulance threaded its way through police cars, fire trucks and irate citizens.

4. The 1812 Overture is a stirring, magnificent piece of music.

5. After two broken arms, three cracked ribs and one concussion, Ken quit the varsity football team.

6. My cat’s pupils had constricted to small black shining dots.

7. We prefer our staff to be orderly, prompt and efficient.

8. For breakfast the children ordered cornflakes, English muffins with peanut butter and cherry Cokes.

9. It was a small, unimportant part, but I was happy to have it.

10. Cyril was clad in a luminous orange rain suit and a brilliant white helmet.

11. Anne Frank and thousand like her were forced to hide in attics, cellars and secret rooms in an effort to save their lives.

Use commas to set off non-defining elements. Do not use commas to set off defining elements.

Word groups describing nouns or pronouns (adjective clauses, adjective phrases, and appositives) are defining or non-defining. A defining element defines or limits the meaning of the word it modifies and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. As it contains essential information, a defining element is not set off with commas.

Defining: For camp the children needed clothes that were washable.

If you remove a defining element from a sentence, the meaning changes significantly, becoming more general than you intended. The writer of the example sentence does not mean that the children needed clothes in general. The intended meaning is more limited: the children needed washable clothes.

A non-defining element describes a noun or pronoun whose meaning has already been clearly defined or limited. As it contains nonessential or parenthetical information, a non-defining element is set off with commas.

Non-defining: For camp the children needed sturdy shoes, which were expensive.

If you remove a non-defining element from a sentence, the meaning does not change dramatically. Some meaning is lost, to be sure, but the defining characteristics of the person or thing described remain the same as before. The children needed sturdy shoes, and these happened to be expensive.

Note: Often it is difficult to tell whether a word group is defining or non-defining without seeing it in context and considering the writer’s meaning. Both of the following sentences are grammatically correct, but their meaning is slightly different.

The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.

The dessert, made with fresh raspberries, was delicious.

In the example without commas, the phrase made with fresh raspberries tells readers which of two or more desserts the writer is referring to. In the example with commas, the phrase merely adds information about the particular dessert served with the meal.

Adjective clauses

Adjective clauses are patterned like sentences, containing subjects and verbs, but they function within sentences as modifiers of nouns or pronouns. They always follow the word they modify, usually immediately. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose which, that) or with a relative adverb (where, when).

Non-defining adjective clauses are set off with commas; defining adjective clauses are not.

Non-defining clauses

Ed’s house, which is located on thirteen acres, was completely furnished with bats

in the rafters and mice in the kitchen.

The adjective clause which is located on thirteen acres does not restrict the meaning of Ed’s house, so the information is nonessential.

Defining clause

Drivers who think they own the road make cycling a dangerous sport.

The modifier who think they own the road restricts the meaning of Drivers and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. Putting comma around the who clause falsely suggests that all drivers think they own the road.

An office manager for a corporation that had government contracts asked her

supervisor whether she could reprimand her co-workers for smoking.

As the adjective clause that had government contracts identify the corporation, the information is essential.

Note: Use that only with defining clauses. Many writers prefer to use which only with non-defining clauses, but usage varies.

Phrases functioning as adjectives

Prepositional or verbal phrases functioning as adjectives may be defining or non-defining. Non-defining phrases are set off with commas; defining phrases are not.

Non-defining phrase

The helicopter, with its 100,000-candlepower spotlight illuminating the area,

circled above.

The with phrase is nonessential because its purpose is not to specify which of two or more helicopters is being discussed.

Defining phrase

One corner of the attic was filled with newspapers dating from the turn of the

century.

Dating from the turn of the century restricts the meaning of newspapers, so comma should be omitted.

Appositives

An appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that renames a nearby noun. Non-defining appositives are set off with commas; defining appositives are not.

Non-defining appositive

Darwin’s most important book, On the Origin of Species, was the result of many

years of research.

Most important restricts the meaning to one book, so the appositive On the Origin of Species is non-defining.

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