Ex. 17. Name the major portions of the stomach and speak on them.

Ex. 18. Complete the following sentences:

1. The human stomach is _. 2. It is connected to_. 3. The stomach is composed of _. 4. Gastric juice contains _. 5. The functions of the stomach are _. 6. The body of the stomach is _. 7. The fundus of the stomach is _. 8. The antrum is _. 9. The cardiac sphincter is _. 10. The pyloric sphincter is _.

Ex. 19. Describe the functions of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

Ex. 20. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. Шлунок – найбільш розширений відділ травного каналу. 2. Він розташований між стравоходом і дванадцятипалою кишкою, у верхньому відділі черевної порожнини. 3. Форма та розміри шлунка коливаються у різних людей. 4. Це залежить від його функціонального стану, від віку та статі. 5. По краях шлунка одна його стінка переходить в іншу, утворюючи малу кривизну шлунка. 6. Стінки шлунка складаються з трьох оболонок: серозної, м'язової та слизової.

Ex. 21. Write out key words of the text "Stomach" and retell the text. The following expressions may be helpful:

The stomach is ….

It is located in...

The stomach stores and mixes ….

It consists of ….

The body/fundus/antrum/cardiac sphincter/pyloric sphincter is ….

Ex. 22. Compose the dialogue on the structure of the stomach.

Ex. 23. Add the missing parts of the clinical terms:

1. Gastro_ is an instrument inserted though the mouth for visually inspecting the inside of the stomach. 2. Gastroentero_ is the branch of medicine that is concerned with disorders of the digestive system. 4. Gastr_ is an inflammation of the stomach lining. 5. Gastr_ is the surgical removal of all, or especially part of the stomach.

A. _scope; B. _itis; C. _ectomy; D._logy.

Ex. 24. Read and narrate the following text:

STOMACH FUNCTIONS

The major stomach functions are to store and mix the ingested food.

Secretions of the stomach. Stomach secretions include mucus, hydrochloric acid, gastrin, intrinsic factor, and pepsinogen, the inactive form of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin. Mucus protects the stomach lining. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which digest proteins. Hydrochloric acid promotes pepsin activity and kills microorganisms. Intrisnic factor is necessary for vitamin B12 absorption.

Regulation of stomach secretion. Approximately 2 to 3 L of gastric secretions (gastric juice) are produced each day. Diet dramatically affects the secretion amount; up to 700 ml are secreted as a result of a typical meal. Both nervous and hormonal mechanisms regulate gastric secretions. Regulation of stomach secretion is divided into 3 phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal. The cephalic phase is initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food. Nerve impulses from the medulla stimulate hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and gastrin secretion. The gastric phase is initiated by distention of the stomach, which stimulates gastrin secretion and activates central nervous system and local reflexes that promote secretion. The intestinal phase is initiated by acidic chime, which enters the duodenum and stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of hormones that induce and then inhibit gastric secretions.

Mixing of stomach contents. Ingested food is mixed with the secretions of the stomach glands to form a semi-fluid material called juice (chime). This mixing is accomplished by gentle mixing waves, which are peristaltic-like contractions that occur every 20 seconds to mix the ingested material with the secretions of the stomach. Peristaltic waves occur less frequently. They are more powerful than mixing waves, and force the chime near the periphery of the stomach toward the pyloric sphincter. Roughly 80% of the contractions are mixing waves, and 20% are peristaltic waves.

Regulation of stomach emptying. The amount of time food remains in the stomach depends on the number of factors, including the type and volume of food. Liquids exist in the stomach within 1 and ½ hours to 2 and ½ hours after ingestion. After a typical meal the stomach is usually empty within 3 to 4 hours. Gastrin and stretching of the stomach stimulate stomach emptying.

Regulation of stomach movements. If the stomach empties too fast, the efficiency of digestion and absorption is reduced. If the rate of emptying is too slow, the highly acidic contents of the stomach may damage the stomach wall and reduce the rate at which nutrients are digested and absorbed. Stomach emptying is regulated to prevent these two extremes. Stomach stretches and relaxes to increase volume. Conversely, many of the hormonal and neural mechanisms decrease the rate of the stomach emptying.

OVERVIEW

The stomach stores and mixes the ingested food. The major function of the stomach is to prepare the food for further digestion and absorption into the blood. The stomach is a dilated portion of the alimentary tract. It consists of the fundus, the body, and the antrum. The upper opening of the stomach is called the cardiac sphincter and the lower one is called the pyloric sphincter. The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach. The pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested. Different gastric glands are in the stomach. The glands of the stomach secrete gastric juice. This juice contains pepsins and hydrochloric acid. Pepsin converts proteins into smaller substances. Hydrochloric acid is necessary for the correct action of pepsin.

LESSON 27

LIVER

VOCABULARY

lobe ['lqub] частка porta ['pO:tq] ворота duct[dAkt] канал, протока hepatic [hI'pxtIk] печінковий plexus ['pleksqs] сплетіння bile [baIl] жовч cystic duct ['sIstIk] міхурний проток empty['emptI] спорожнити; виливати; впадати, входити pancreatic duct ["pxNkrI'xtIk] вірзунгова протока, протока підшлункової залози bowel ['bauql] кишка detoxification [dI:"tOksIfI'keISn] детоксикація embryo ['embrIqu] зародок, ембріон

storage['stO:riG] накопичення; акумулювання copper ['kOpq] мідь harmful ['ha:mful] шкідливий, небезпечний treat [trI:t] обробляти, піддавати дії excrete [eks'krI:t] виділяти complexity [kqm'pleksItI] складність exposure [Iks'pquZq] піддавання будь-якому впливу vulnerable ['vAln(q)rqbl] уразливий protect [prq'tekt] захищати; оберігати capable['keIpqbl] здатний heal[hI:l] виліковувати repair [rI'pFq] відновлення, регенерація injury['InG(q)rI] травма, пошкодження

WORD-BUILDING

Ex. 1. Familiarize yourself with the following material:

Suffixes of Adjectives:

-less ( without )

use користь – useless корисний

-ous (pertaining to)

infectious інфекційний

Ex. 2. Read and translate the following words:

A. Harmless; useless; colorless.

B. Serious; intravenous; famous; membranous; venous; cutaneous; mucous; deciduous; osseous.

GRAMMAR:

Ex. 3. Familiarize yourself with the data of the following table:

PERFECT TENSES

(Passive Voice, Affirmative Form)

to have + been + Participle II (V₃)

TENSE		SUBJECT	PREDICATE
	Present	I, they, you, we   he, she, it	have been has been	V3
PERFECT	Past	I, he, she, it, they, you, we	had been	V3
	Future	I, we he, she, it, you, they	shall have been will have been	V3

MODEL:

The cause of the peptic ulcer has been determined.

The article had been published by 2006.

The exact amount of gastric juice will have been estimated before the surgeon comes.

Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences into Ukrainian:

1. A healing process has been noted by roentenologists. 2. High acidity had been found in patient without X-ray. 3. Uncomplicated duodenal ulcer has been treated largely by medical means. 4. Surgical treatment in peptic ulcer has been reserved for the complications of this disease. 5. The high mortality has been steadily reduced within the past decade. 6. Duodenal ulcer has been associated with severe pain. 7. The pyloric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has been sufficiently digested.

Ex. 5. Read the following phrases which are used in SUMMARY:

It has been indicated (that) …	Було вказано, що …
It has been noted (that) …	Зазначено, що …
It has been determined (that) … It has been estimated (that) …	Виявлено, що … Встановлено, що …
Basic principles of … have been formulated. The research results of … have been submitted.	Були сформульовані основні принципи…   Представлені результати дослідження …

READING AND DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILLS

Ex. 6. Read the VOCABULARY and memorize new words.

Ex. 7. Insert the missing letters, read and translate the following words:

V_lnerable; b_le; d_ct; detoxi_ication; pan_reatic; bo_el; comple_ity; l_be; tr_at; ple_us; prote_t; embr_o; repa_r; port_l; empt_; capa_le; hepati_; expo_ure; stora_e; he_l; c_stic; ex_rete; ha_mful; in_ury.

Ex. 8. Read the following words and word-combinations:

Weigh; upper; abdomen; major; minor; porta; inferior; surface; associated with; artery; nerve; plexus; unite; cystic; empty; pancreatic duct; cholesterol; duodenum; perform; through; lining; bowel; group; category; marrow; fibrinogen; embryo; iron; heat; remove; excrete; feces and urine; exposure; reasonable; believe; injured tissue.

Ex. 9. Read the following text:

LIVER

The liver is the largest internal gland of the body. It weighs approximately 1.36 kg. The liver is in the upper right part of the abdomen. The liver consists of two major lobes, left and right, and minor lobes.

A porta (gate) is on the inferior surface of the liver where the various vessels, ducts, and nerves enter and exit the liver. The hepatic (associated with the liver) portal vein, the hepatic artery, and a small hepatic nerve plexus enter the liver through the porta. Lymphatic vessels and two hepatic ducts exit the liver at the porta. The hepatic ducts transport bile out of the liver. The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single common hepatic duct. The common bile duct is joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct, which empties into the duodenum in union with the pancreatic duct. The gallbladder is a small sac on the inferior surface of the liver that stores bile. The bile is a fluid containing cholesterol and bile acids. The bile is emptied into the duodenum, where it performs its major function of assisting in the absorption of fats through the lining of the small bowel into the bloodstream. The bile acids are then reabsorbed in the small intestine and cycled into the liver to be used again.

The liver, besides producing bile, has many other important functions. They may be grouped into three categories: regulation, metabolism, and detoxification. They are: stimulation of red bone marrow, production of fibrinogen, blood formation in the embryo, storage of iron and copper, protein metabolism, fat metabolism, heat production and others. The liver removes drugs, alcohol, and potentially harmful chemicals from the bloodstream and treats them chemically so they can be excreted in the feces and urine.

Because of the complexity of the liver and its exposure to so many potentially harmful substances, it would be reasonable to believe that it is especially vulnerable to disease. However, nature protects the organ in several ways. First, the liver is capable of regeneration: it can heal itself by repairing or replacing injured tissue. It also is constructed so that many units are responsible for the same task. Thus, if tissue in one section of the organ is injured, by trauma or disease, other cells will perform the functions of the injured section.

Ex. 10. Translate the following words and word-combinations into English:

Печінка; складатися з; виділяти; жири та білки; сплетіння; частка; протока підшлункової залаози; спорожнювати, виливати; виліковувати, зціляти; міхурна протока; канал, протока; ворота органа; захищати; печінковий; жовч; накопичення, акумулювання; відновлення, регенерація; травма, пошкодження.

Ex. 11. Translate the text "Liver" into Ukrainian.

Ex. 12. Complete the following sentences:

1. The liver is the largest internal _ of the body. 2. It is located in the upper right part of the _. 3. The liver consists of two major _ and minor lobes. 4. A _ is the place of the liver where the various vessels, _, and nerves enter and exit the liver. 5. The hepatic _, the hepatic artery, and a small hepatic nerve _ enter the liver through the porta. 6. Lymphatic vessels and two hepatic ducts _ the liver at the porta. 7. The hepatic ducts transport _ out of the liver. 8. The right and left hepatic _ unite to form a single common hepatic duct. 9. The functions of the liver are the following: bile production, stimulation of red _ marrow, _ of iron and copper, protein metabolism, fat metabolism, heat production, and _.

Ex. 13. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the liver? 2. Where is it located? 3. What is the weight of the liver? 4.What is a porta? 5. What is the function of the hepatic duct? 6. What is the bile? 7. What are the functions of the liver? 8. How does nature protect the liver?

Ex. 14. Match the term and its definition:

1. Hepatic artery	1. Vein that drains the liver into the inferior vena cava.
2. Hepatic duct	2. System of portal veins that carry blood from the intestines, stomach, spleen, and pancreas to the liver.
3. Hepatic portal system	3. One of two ducts (left and right) that drain bile from the liver and join to form the common hepatic duct.
4. Hepatic portal vein	4. Portal vein formed by the superior mesenteric and splenic veins and entering the liver.
5. Hepatic vein	5. Branch of the aorta that delivers blood to the liver.

Ex. 15. Write out the key words of the text "Liver".

Ex. 16. Speak on the structure of the liver:

LIVER: (1) right lobe, (2) left lobe, (3) caudate lobe, (4) quadrate lobe, (5) hepatic artery and portal vein, (6) hepatic lymph nodes, (7) gallbladder.

Liver

Ex. 17. Translate the following sentences concerning with the liver function:

1. The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts that emulsify fats. 2. The liver stores nutrients, processes them, and produces new molecules. 3. The liver produces blood components. 4. One of the liver functions is the storage of glycogen, a complex carbohydrate that is converted to sugar for release into the bloodstream when the blood sugar level falls. 5. Glycogen is deposited in the liver when the level of sugar in the blood increases. 6. Many proteins are also synthesized in the liver. 7. The liver helps determine the amount of nutrients that are sent to the rest of the body. 8. It also serves as a clearinghouse to eliminate some foods and substances that have served their purpose but are no longer useful. 9. Many ingested substances are harmful to the cells of the body. 10. In addition, the body itself produces many by-products of metabolism that, if accumulated, are toxic. 11. The liver is one line of defense against many of those harmful substances. 12. The liver can also produce its own unique new compounds. 13. Many of the blood proteins are produced by the liver and are released into the circulation.

Ex. 18. Speak on the functions of the liver.

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