Scientific theory

A scientific theory is a 1) … 2) … of broad scope, conceived by the human imagination, that encompasses a family of empirical laws 3) … regularities existing in objects and events, both 4) … and posited. A scientific 5) … is a structure suggested by these 6) … and is devised to 7) … them in a scientifically rational 8) ….

In attempting to explain things and 9) … the scientist employs (a) careful 10) … or experiments, (b) reports of regularities, and (c) systematic explanatory 11) ….. The statements of regularities, if 12) …, may be taken as empirical laws 13) … continuing relationships among the things or 14) … observed. Thus, when empirical laws are able to 15) … curiosity by uncovering orderliness in the behaviour of things or events, the scientist may advance a scientific scheme, or scientific theory, to provide an accepted explanation of why these laws hold.

Empirical laws and scientific theories differ in several ways. In a law, reasonably clear observational rules are available for determining the meaning of each of its terms; thus, a law can be tested by carefully observing the things and properties referred to by these terms. Indeed, they are initially formulated by generalizing or schematizing from observed relationships. In the case of scientific theories, however, some of the terms commonly refer to things that are not observed. Thus, it is evident that theories are imaginative constructs of the human mind – the results of philosophical and aesthetic judgments as well as of observation - for they are only suggested by observational information rather than inductively generalized from it. Moreover, theories cannot ordinarily be tested and accepted on the same grounds as laws. Thus, whereas an empirical law expresses a unifying relationship among a small selection of observables, scientific theories have much greater scope, explaining a variety of such laws and predicting others jet undiscovered.

A theory may be characterized as a postulational system (a set of premises) from which empirical laws are deducible as theorems. Thus, it can have an abstract logical form, with axioms, formation rules, and rules for drawing deductions from axioms as well as definitions for empirically interpreting its symbols. In practice, however, theories are seldom structured so carefully.

1. a) systematic b) random c) organized d) methodical

2. a) scheme b) structure c) construction d) arrangement

3. a) relating b) referring c) regarding d) estimating

4. a) looked at b) observed c) witnessed d) regarded

5. a) theory b) hypothesis c) assumption d) explanation

6. a) orders b) decrees c) rules d) laws

7. a) clarify b) define c) explain d) highlight

8. a) manner b) style c) fashion d) custom

9. a) episodes b) incidents c) results d) events

10. a) comment b) observation c) remark d) opinion

11. a) plans b) plots c) designs d) schemes

12. a) thorough b) careful c) accurate d) inexact

13. a) uttering b) formulating c) declaring d) expressing

14. a) traits b) typical c) characteristics d) differences

15. a) please b) gratify c) satisfy d) meet

Read both texts carefully to fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.

TEXT B

INTERPLAY OF EXPERIMENTS AND THEORIES

Progress in any science arises from a close interplay of experiment and theory. In a well-established field like classical mechanics, it may appear that experiment is almost unnecessary and all that is needed is the mathematical or computational skill to discover the solutions of the equations of motion. This view, however, overlooks the role of observation or experiment in setting up the problem in the first place. To discover the conditions under which a bicycle is stable in an upright position or can be made to turn a corner, it is first necessary to invent and observe a bicycle. The equations of motion are so general and serve as the basis for describing so extended a range of phenomena that the mathematician must usually look at the behaviour of real objects in order to select those that are both interesting and soluble. His analysis may indeed suggest the existence of interesting related effects that can be examined in the laboratory; thus, the invention or discovery of new things may be initiated by the experimenter or the theoretician. To employ terms such as these has led to a common assumption that experimentation and theorizing are distinct activities rarely performed by the same person. It is true that almost all active physicists pursue their vocation primarily in one mode or the other. Nevertheless, an innovative experimenter can hardly make progress without an informed appreciation of the theoretical structure, even if he is not technically competent to find the solution of particular mathematical problems. By the same token, an innovative theorist must be deeply imbued with the way real objects behave, even if he is not technically competent to put together the apparatus to examine the problem.

Comprehension check

1. Complete the sentences with the best ending a, b, or c.

A scientific theory

a) is suggested by empirical laws.

b) is based on empirical laws.

c) includes a number of empirical laws considering regularities existing in nature.

While explaining natural phenomena and processes scientists

a) take into account only the results of observations and experiments.

b) use theories, experimental results and knowledge of regularities.

c) employ reports of regularities.

Empirical laws

a) express relations existing among processes and phenomena observed.

b) formulate regularities.

c) uncover properties of different phenomena.

An empirical law

a) can be tested in any laboratory.

b) can be checked by careful observation of natural phenomena that are referred to in it.

c) arises from observed relationships.

A theory

a) is stated using the same principles as laws.

b) cannot be tested on the same grounds as laws.

c) is the result of observation.

Scientific progress

a) can be achieved by a close interplay of theory and experiment.

b) is based on experimental results.

c) is grounded on theory.

The discovery of new phenomena and processes

a) results from careful observation and experiments.

b) may be initiated by both the experimenter and the theorist.

c) is closely connected with theoretical activity.

2. Answer the following questions.

1. What is a scientific theory?

2. Why is it devised?

3. What does the scientist employ while explaining things and events?

4. What can be taken as empirical laws and why?

5. What do empirical laws express?

6. What may the scientist advance?

7. What are the differences between empirical laws and scientific theories?

8. How may a theory be characterized? And what form can it have?

9. How can progress be made in science?

10. What is the role of observation and experiment in science?

11. Who usually initiates the invention and discovery of new things: the experimenter or the theoretician? Why?

12. Why are experimentation and theorizing distinct activities?

13. Can an innovative experimenter or theoretician make progress in their own fields if they have no knowledge or information about existing theories and experimental procedures, respectively?

3. Express your agreement or disagreement. Give arguments in support of your viewpoint.

1. Each scientific theory includes a number of empirical laws.

2. Empirical laws are concerned with regularities existing in objects and events, both observed and posited.

3. A scientific theory accounts for laws in a rational way.

4. The explanation of natural phenomena and processes requires the scientist to employ careful observation and experiments.

5. Empirical laws express relations existing among objects observed.

6. Empirical laws can uncover orderliness in the behaviour of things.

7. A law can’t be tested.

8. Laws are formulated on the basis of observed relationships.

9. Theories are constructions of man’s imagination.

10. Theories are tested and accepted on the same grounds as laws.

11. It’s quite obvious that scientific progress originates in a close interplay of experiment and theory.

12. Only experimenters can initiate discoveries of new things.

13. Experimentation and theorizing can be performed by the same person.

14. Theorists must be aware of the way real objects behave.

4. Arrange the sentences in the logical order taking into account the contents of the text “Scientific theory”.

1. In comparison with empirical laws scientific theories have much greater scope.

2. The scientist may put forward a scientific theory that will give an accepted explanation of empirical laws.

3. The scientific theory is a systematic structure that includes a number of empirical laws.

4. There are some differences between scientific theories and empirical laws.

5. While explaining natural phenomena and processes the scientist should use systematic explanatory schemes and results of observations and experiments.

6. Empirical laws can be tested by careful observation of natural phenomena.

7. A theory is a postulational system from which empirical laws can be deduced.

8. Theories are the results of philosophical judgments as well as of observation.

Vocabulary work

1. (A). Choose from two columns words having the opposite meaning.

rational	to retard
to employ	specially
to advance	to notice
ordinarily	to hide
progress	cause
to discover	inept, awkward
to overlook	to disregard
effect	insane
competent	regression

(B). Use appropriate words from the box above in suitable forms in the sentences to follow. (Sometimes more than one word is possible).

1. It was the most … method of solving the problem.

2. His warning ….

3. He … a very convincing argument.

4. I went to the laboratory … to see her.

5. They haven’t made much … in solving the problem of air pollution.

6. He had nothing to ….

7. I … it this time, but don’t let it happen again.

8. The law goes into … soon.

9. She has used … words.

2. (A). Choose synonyms.

scope	rule
structure	expression
to conceive	hypothesis
law	framework
to posit	remark
theory	explanation
to pursue	to relate
observation	range
characteristic	to postulate
term	to perceive
to refer	to follow
solution	feature

(B). Fill in the blanks using the proper words from the box above in suitable forms.

1. These problems lie beyond my ….

2. This phenomenon is studied within the … of general relativity.

3. They … it to be expedient.

4. He studies ….

5. He was a man of little ….

6. The most amazing thing about … is its infinite variety.

7. We won’t do that on any ….

8. I … this question to your decision.

9. Before making experiments he held this substance in ….

3. (A). Match adjectives on the left with suitable nouns on the right to form collocations. Make use of the texts given above to fulfill the task. Use each word once only.

close	activities
well-established	schemes
observational	assumption
explanatory	experimenter
related	law
common	manner
distinct	interplay
innovative	effects
broad	rule
empirical	field(s)
rational	scope

(B). Use some of the word combinations from the previous exercise to complete the sentences.

1. A … … of theory and experiment resulted in creating a new technological innovation.

2. Classical mechanics is a … … of physics.

3. In her article she pointed out the existence of interesting… … that were observed during the experiment.

4. While explaining this phenomenon we proceeded from the … … about the wave nature of the electron.

5. Theorization and experimentation are … … that are seldom performed by the same person.

6. An … … can hardly succeed in his work without any theoretical knowledge.

7. Scientific theories are aimed at explaining natural phenomena in a … ….

8. An … … expresses some relationship among a small number of observables.

4. (A). Complete the table with the missing forms.

Noun	Verb	Adjective
observation
	to imagine
science
	to explain
solution
	to predict
theory
	to reason

(B). Fill in the blanks using some of the adjectives derived from the words mentioned above.

1. It was the best solution ….

2. He made a brief survey of … literature related to his research problem.

3. This phenomenon was not ….

4. A careful driver is … of the traffic rules.

5. He laid the foundation of … physics.

6. It was an utterly … display of temper.

7. Her reaction was ….

8. This is an easily … equation.

5. Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.

deduced	solution	imaginative	empirical	employing
make any progress	embraces	related	advanced	observation

1. A scientific theory is a systematic structure that … a number of experimental laws.

2. Any … law can satisfy people’s curiosity revealing regularities in natural processes and phenomena.

3. Laws can be tested by careful … of things referred to by terms used in these laws.

4. Theories are … constructions of the human mind.

5. Empirical laws can be … from theories.

6. There exist some interesting … effects that can be investigated in our laboratory.

7. … such variables in this equation can result in its solution.

8. One can hardly … … without applying this theory.

9. He … a specific theory that helped to explain a number of properties of this compound.

10. It was not difficult to find the … of some mathematical problems.

6. Replace the word(s) in italics for the word(s) from the box. Use each word once only.

created	initiated	state	account for	overlooked
rules	range	originates	distinct	skillful

1. Progress in any science arises from a close interplay of experiment and theory.

2. He disregarded the role of his colleague in solving the problem.

3. The invention of new things may be started by the experimenter or the theorist.

4. Experimentation and theorizing are separate activities.

5. He is not technically competent to find the solution of this problem.

6. A special theory was devised to explain relativity.

7. Empirical laws express relationships existing among phenomena and processes observed.

8. Observational regulations are used to determine the meaning of each term in a law.

9. Theories have much greater scope as they can explain a number of empirical laws.

7. Fill in the crossword puzzle.

Down

1. Careful and exact; free from error.

2. Having, using imagination.

3. Able to reason; having the faculty of reasoning.

4. Conclusion reached by reasoning from general laws to a particular case.

5. Test or trial carried out carefully in order to study what happens and gain new knowledge.

6. To postulate.

7. (of reasoning) based on induction.

Across

8. Law or custom which guides or controls behaviour or action; decision made by an organization, etc about what must or must not be done.

9. Special mark or quality.

10. Process of judging; good sense; ability to judge.

8. Translate the following sentences.

1. Научная теория охватывает ряд эмпирических законов, рассматривающих закономерности, существующие в природе.

2. Научные теории создают для рационального объяснения природных явлений.

3. Эмпирические законы отражают постоянно существующие взаимоотношения между наблюдаемыми объектами.

4. Существуют некоторые отличия между научными теориями и эмпирическими законами.

5. Законы можно протестировать, проводя тщательные наблюдения за объектами, на которые ссылаются (упоминаются) в этих законах.

6. Теории представляют собой воображаемые построения человеческого ума.

7. Теорию можно охарактеризовать как аксиоматическую систему, посредством которой можно вывести эмпирические законы.

Follow-up activities

1. Your group-mate is a theorist/experimentalist. Interview him about the peculiarities of his research work.

2. Choose a prominent scientist – an experimentalist or a theoretician. Speak about his contribution to science.

UNIT 5

RESEARCH SUPERVISION

Pre-reading tasks

1. In your opinion, should a supervisor be a friend, a colleague, or a boss?

2. What would you prefer: to carry out your research independently or to count on your supervisor’s help in any situation?

3. The words in the column A are used in the text “Postgraduates supervision”. Guess what they mean choosing the proper definitions in the column B.

A	B
supervision	opinion about what to do, how to behave;
adviser	group of people working together under a manager or head;
experience	expert knowledge and skill;
research	rule, order, authoritative direction;
staff	investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts, to get additional information, etc;
expertise	person who is habitually consulted;
examination	process of gaining knowledge or skill by doing and seeing things; knowledge or skill so gained;
advice	inquiry into or inspection of smth;
regulation	organizing and directing smb’s work.

4. Match one verb and one noun to form word combinations. Use the text “Postgraduates supervision” to check whether you have performed the task correctly.

to retain	to design	to provide	to monitor	to give	to gain
feedback	access	advice	responsibility	work	progress

Reading

Read the text “Postgraduates supervision” and be ready to fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.

TEXT A

POSTGRADUATES SUPERVISION

If you are offered a place on any research degree you should find an appropriate supervisor who will be an expert in the field of your research interests. Your supervisor will help you to formulate your research proposal and give you assistance towards successful and timely completion of your studies. Many universities will offer dual supervision or a supervisory panel. In addition, students dealing with natural science and life sciences will be part of a research group. This will offer the opportunity for postgraduates to get access to wider expertise and support.

Your supervisor is usually the most important academic person-resource in your postgraduate program. He is appointed from the University’s academic staff. He is also your first point of contact for a wide range of questions, including professional development and administrative procedures.

The main activity is, of course, independent research and writing a thesis based on it. As a research student, you will work closely with your supervisor who will guide and advise you throughout your period of study. The supervisor will also guide you in writing a thesis, but you retain the prime responsibility for your own work. In addition to your independent study, you will take part in the general research life of your department, and may be involved in research seminars, colloquia and other activities with your colleagues. At the end of your period of study, you will present your thesis for examination and be given an oral examination on it.

The support of supervisors is crucial as they assist postgraduates to complete their programs of study successfully and within the permitted length of time. However, it is also important to remember that, whatever the discipline may is, a research degree is an opportunity to carry out an independent and original piece of work. Supervisors can offer advice and guidance, but they will not tell their students exactly what to read or how to design and carry out work on their theses.

Supervisor should be acquainted with procedures and regulations of writing and defending theses. Students are expected to meet with their research advisers at regular intervals so that the latter may advise and control the development of research projects. Supervisors establish a stimulating research environment, give advice on the choice of projects and planning, ensure that appropriate facilities are available, provide training in research, consult their students, continuously monitor progress and provide structured feedback. Usually supervisors remain aware of students’ situation and needs.

Comprehension check

1. Choose the best ending to the following sentences.

Supervisors will give assistance

a) towards successful and timely completion of studies.

b) in producing a thesis.

c) in completing research.

Being a member of a research group one

a) works closely with his supervisor.

b) gains access to wider expertise and support.

c) conducts his research independently.

3. The main activity of postgraduates is …

a) taking part in research seminars and colloquia.

b) formulating their research proposals.

c) independent study and writing a thesis based on it.

4. At the end of his period of studies a postgraduate is …

a) to inform his supervisor about the results of his research.

b) to present his thesis for examination.

c) to take part in a research seminar.

5. The support of the supervisor is crucial in assisting his students …

a) to complete their programs of study successfully and within the permitted length of time.

b) to formulate research proposals.

c) to lay down programs of research.

2. Find the sentences that contradict the contents of the text and correct them.

1. If you want to write a thesis, you first have to find an appropriate supervisor.

2. A supervisor usually formulates a research proposal.

3. While conducting his research a postgraduate student is part of a research group.

4. Dual supervision is seldom offered.

5. A supervisor consults his students about a wide range of questions, covering their research and administrative procedures.

6. Supervisors guide their students during the first two years of studies.

7. Supervisors and their students meet once a month.

8. A supervisor is always aware of the student’s situation and needs.

Reading

Read the first two paragraphs of the text “Thomas Hull” and choose appropriate words to fill in the blanks.

TEXT B

THOMAS HULL

He was an 1) … leader who got the best from the people by 2) … the best, whose fundamental decency was 3) … in every interaction. He 4) … by example that the highest 5) … can be 6) … cooperatively, without envy, jealousy or corrosive 7) ….

Even before I 8) … Tom, he had a 9) … influence on me. I 10) … one of his 11) … in the first computer science 12) … that I took at the University of Toronto in the early 1970s. Tom was the author of seven textbooks that 13) … a very important 14) … in establishing computer science as an academic 15) … in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

I was fortunate to have Tom as an instructor for the first course on numerical analysis that I took at the university. It was clear to all of us in the class that Tom knew his subject thoroughly. Moreover, his lectures were well organized, clear, concise and delivered with a sense of humour. Many students find numerical analysis a little dry and somewhat difficult. Tom was well aware of this and motivated his students by beginning each of his lectures with a short intuitive discussion of the topic that he was going to talk about that day and by briefly outlining its importance, often relating the topic to other subjects that we were studying. Tom’s lecturing style was a model for many of us who later went on to teaching careers ourselves.

Among many reasons for Tom’s great success as a teacher was his love of interacting with people. He clearly enjoyed teaching a subject that was dear to him and seeing others take pleasure in learning about it. His enthusiasm was infectious and rubbed off on many of his students.

I was also fortunate to have Tom as a graduate supervisor, a role in which he excelled. In part, this was because he was an excellent researcher himself. When I was a graduate student, about 20 years ago, Tom was the chairman of the computer science department, a member of the NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada) committee on grants and scholarships, an editor of three prestigious journals, the author of several of the most important papers in our area, and an invited speaker at many international conferences. He knew most of the key players in our research area and was aware of the topics on which they were working. He had a very good sense for what was a good problem to tackle and what would likely be fruitless.

More importantly, Tom was an excellent graduate supervisor at a more personal level. His enthusiasm for discussing new ideas with students was evident. In spite of his extremely busy schedule, he always found time for his students and he gave all of us the impression that our work was a high priority for him. He was always supportive, encouraging, and very generous in his praise of good ideas. But, of course, not all the ideas that students have are good ones. Tom was careful not to be too deflating when explaining why some silly scheme a student had devised was not sound. He usually got the student back on track and feeling positive about pursuing another line of attack.

1. a) effective b) effectual c) practical d) ineffective

2. a) suspecting b) expecting c) looking forward to d) waiting

3. a) understandable b) seeming c) unobvious d) apparent

4. a) informed b) tutored c) taught d) trained

5. a) measures b) standards c) examples d) symbols

6. a) reached b) got to c) arrived at d) stretched

7. a) tournament b) match c) competition d) conflict

8. a) gathered b) united c) came across d) met

9. a) vital b) significant c) trivial d) moral

10. a) used b) employed c) utilized d) consumed

11. a) volumes b) novels c) books d) tomes

12. a) direction b) advance c) passage d) course

13. a) performed b) played c) participated d) acted

14. a) role b) task c) character d) function

15. a) training b) discipline c) practice d) order

Read the text “Thomas Hull” once again to fulfill the tasks below.

Comprehension check

1. Prove that the following sentences are true/false taking into account the contents of the text.

1. Thomas Hull was a founder of computer science.

2. The author of the text used several of his books while studying at London University.

3. Thomas Hull was the author of ten textbooks on computer science.

4. The author of the text was personally acquainted with Thomas Hull.

5. Thomas Hull delivered lectures on numerical analysis for second-year students.

6. His lectures were concise, clear and well-organized.

7. Thomas began each of his lectures by briefly outlining the importance of the topic in question.

8. Tom’s great success as a teacher was based on his love of interacting with people.

9. Besides being a talented teacher Thomas was an excellent researcher himself.

10. Thomas was an extremely busy person.

11. He was always supportive, encouraging and very generous with his students.

Express your viewpoint on the following.

– The influence – of a teacher on a student is not always a good thing.

– We get the best from people by expecting the best.

2. Give answers to the following questions.

1. Why does the author of the text think that Thomas Hull was an effective leader?

2. How can the highest standards be reached in Hull’s opinion?

3. Doesn’t this opinion contradict the common knowledge that competition helps to achieve better results in some spheres?

4. How did Thomas Hull and the author of this text get acquainted?

5. What field of science did Hull deal with?

6. What course did he teach at Toronto University?

7. How did he motivate his students?

8. What were the main reasons for Tom’s great success as a teacher?

9. Was Thomas Hull an excellent supervisor? Was it because he was a good researcher?

10. If one is an excellent researcher does it mean that he can be a good supervisor?

11. What was Hull’s occupation when the author of the text was a graduate student?

12. Why did Hull’s graduate students succeed in their work?

13. Why is it important for a supervisor not only to be aware of key problems in his field of science but to support and encourage his students?

Vocabulary work

1. (A). Name antonyms.

assistance	to condemn
to guide	failure
aware	efficacious
fortunate	mediocre
to encourage	interference
fruitless	ignorant
expert	to follow
success	to hinder
excellent	unlucky
to praise	unskilled

(B).Choose appropriate words from the box above and use them in suitable forms in the sentences to follow.

1. It is thus that … people seek to lower great men.

2. It is … to go to him for help.

3. They … his speech for its clarity and humour.

4. He brooks no … in his business.

5. He … his father as head of the firm.

6. He is an … person, he always goes through the door in front of a lady.

7. Her endless talking … me from my work.

8. Neither of them was … in riding.

9. All our experiments ended in ….

10. The play was a tremendous … with the public.

2. (A). Find synonyms.

to supervise	recommendation
prime	to investigate
research	personnel
proposal	specialist
guidance	to direct
expert	chief
staff	obligation
to examine	leadership
responsibility	study

(B). Fill in the blanks using the proper words from the box above in suitable forms. (Sometimes more than one word is possible).

1. If the children had been properly …, the accident would not have happened.

2. He carried out … into the causes of cancer.

3. The committee rejected the … to reduce taxes.

4. She provided … for a new project.

5. He is a … in plastic surgery.

6. They joined the … of our corporation.

7. She exercises … in cycling.

8. We … the market for sales of a new product.

9. He does not want to take on any ….

3. (A). Choose suitable words from the box and use them in word combinations with the following nouns: approach, progress, advice, research.

friendly	innovative	proposal	scientific	seminars
life	supervision	significant	interests	holistic

(B). Use some of the word combinations from the previous exercise to complete the following sentences.

1. She always gives me … ….

2. He took an … … to the problem under study.

3. My research supervisor helped me to formulate my … ….

4. Heavy investments facilitated rapid … ….

5. They always take part in … ….

6. It is desirable that you hold your supervisor’s … ….

7. Everybody thought that it was a … … as it influenced greatly further development of neurosurgery.

4. (A). Form nouns using the verbs given below. Use the texts above to fulfill the task. Add some more nouns if possible.

To complete, to succeed, to supervise, to design, to train, to propose.

(B). Complete the sentences using some of the nouns derived from the verbs mentioned above.

1. This … is so clear that it needs no argument.

2. You may occupy the flat on … of contract.

3. I attempted, without …, to persuade her.

4. All orders are executed in ….

5. He excelled as a graduate ….

6. She has ambitious … for her son.

7. I am a historian by ….

8. They turned down our ….

5. Fill in the blanks using appropriate expressions from the box.

research proposal	advice and guidance	research
examination	consults	procedures and regulations
retain	monitors	be involved in
academic staff	is supervised	responsibility

1. Any … conducted by a student … by a competent researcher.

2. A supervisor is acquainted with … of defending one’s thesis.

3. Supervisors can offer ….

4. At the end of his period of study a postgraduate student usually presents his thesis for ….

5. A supervisor is appointed from the School’s ….

6. Postgraduates may … research seminars and colloquia.

7. Supervisors help in formulating a ….

8. Students … the prime … for their research.

9. A supervisor … his postgraduates and continuously … their progress.

6. Use the words in brackets in the necessary form.

1. When one thinks of doing his postgraduate studies he should carefully choose an (proper) supervisor.

2. Supervisors usually help in formulating research proposals and give (assist) towards successful and timely (complete) of studies.

3. The main (act) is the production of a thesis.

4. A research degree is an opportunity to carry out an (depend) and original piece of work.

5. Supervisors usually establish a (stimulate) research environment.

6. It is expected that supervisors provide (train) in research and consult their postgraduates.

7. His supervisor gave him plenty of (encourage) which boosted his confidence.

8. I had good working (relate) with my supervisor.

9. He has made a major (contribute) to macroelectronics.

7. Fill in the crossword puzzle.

Down

1. Order of doing things, esp. legal and political.

2. Class of students, etc studying a problem and meeting for discussion with a tutor or professor.

3. Way, path, road; approximation.

4. Plan or scheme, smth proposed.

5. (colloq.) information, etc. given by the user to the supplier, maker, etc; response.

6. Having knowledge or skill.

Across

7. Being responsible, being accountable.

8. Leadership.

8. Translate into English.

1. Любое исследование, проводимое аспирантами, осуществляется под руководством научного руководителя.

2. Система научного руководства, существующая в нашем университете, имеет много общего с системой зарубежных университетов.

3. В некоторых случаях аспирантам предлагают двойное руководство.

4. Научных руководителей назначают из профессорско-преподавательского состава.

5. Очень важно, чтобы научные интересы вашего руководителя совпадали с вашими интересами.

6. Научный руководитель дает советы и направляет работу своих аспирантов на протяжении всего периода обучения.

7. Несмотря на то, что руководители оказывают помощь в проведении исследования, аспиранты несут основную ответственность за свою работу.

8. Обычно научные руководители и аспиранты встречаются регулярно, чтобы обсудить полученные результаты и наметить планы на будущее.

9. Ей очень повезло с научным руководителем, так как он не только превосходный исследователь, но и талантливый учитель, и терпеливый человек.

Дата добавления: 2015-10-29