The influence of national identity on the international relations

IDENTITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

1. CONCEPT OF IDENTITY

1.1. Determining the identity

Leading Analyst identity Erik Erikson called her "pervasive", "foggy", " unclear." Leon Vilziter in 1996 published the book "Versus identity," which ridiculed the concept. However, in 1998 in his book "Kadesh" - candid recognizing their own Jewish identity - he wrote: "Identity - as sin: no matter how much we are not opposed to it, avoid it we can not."

C. Huntington defines identity as the self-feeling of the individual or group. Identity in the dictionary NLP is defined as: "Your self-image or self-concept. Who do you think you are. The integrity of your being. "

The study of personality is no more fundamental problem than the study of the mechanisms and consequences of identity formation. We feel identity in moments of deep personal contact, touching matters of deep and enduring importance to us. Identity is important because it determines the behavior of the person and the group. If I think of myself as a professor at Moscow University, I will behave accordingly to this view.

In the scientific literature, the term "identity" intersects with concepts such as self-awareness, compliance, identity, integrity, unity, identity-ness, self, authenticity. Antonyms concept of "identity": instability, inconsistency, uncertainty, discontinuity. The concept of "identicalness" has elements of identity, certainty, unity in diversity over-protective functions and dynamics.

1.2. Characteristics of identity

1. Identity have both individuals and groups. The individual may be a member of many groups at once, and therefore has the ability to switch identity. Group identity is less flexible. For example, my identity include membership of sociologists and sociological Faculty. I can go to another city and go to work, for example, the Faculty of psychology of St. Petersburg University. But sociological Faculty can never be psychological or move to St. Petersburg. His identity is much more rigid than mine.

2. Individs, as well as a group, have multiple identities - familial, sexual, professional, ethnic, national. The significance of these identities is me, over time, or do they complement or conflict with each other. Only during difficult trials the first place there is some one, blocking all others. In international relations, the main role is played by the national iden5tity, as main actors of the international-relations is still the state - nation.

3. Identity is greatly influenced by the perception of you by others. If in contact with the new environment a person is in a position stranger, then he begins to consider himself an stranger. If the majority of the population considers minority backward and ignorant, the members of this minority perceive this attitude and it become a part of their identity.

People may seek to identity, but to reach it only when they will be in your circle of those who have already purchased this identity. Telling anecdote times "cold war" of the Polish boy who asked his father, "Dad, at school we are told that Russian - our brothers. And yet - they are friends. I am quite confused as to who they are - brothers or friends? "The father thought and said:" Brothers ". - "Why, Daddy?" - "Because friends can be selected." The people, which you want to see yours friend, will be established, only if they want to see you as a friend. After the cold war, the Poles, Czechs and Hungarians expected, that the West recognizes their claim to being membership to Western Europe. They succeeded, but not all nations meet such welcome. Europe does not see Turkey's elite whose dreams of Westernization. As a result, the Turks did not answer himself, who they are - the Europeans or Asians - and to some geopolitical sphere - Europe, the West, the Middle East, the Islamic world, central Asia - they relate.

3. It is important to understand the concept of identity is the concept of "significant other. " For Russia, such "significant other" is the West, but also for the West "significant other" has always been Russian. Nations can interact with their "significant others" in different ways. For example, it may be war or cooperation.

4. Identity represent constructs. We ourselves construct their identities at desire, of necessity or pressure. Benedict Anderson called the nation «Imagined Communities». Identity - imaginary essence - what we think about ourselves, what we seek.

5. Identity is situational. Female sociologist in the company of ten men sociologists will feel like a woman, and in the company of ten women who are not related to sociology - Sociologist. Russian we feel when traveling abroad. To emphasize the independence of Pakistan from India, the founders of Pakistan accentuate Islamic identity. Muslim Bangladesh, justifying its independence from Pakistan emphasized on the features of the language and culture.

6. "Width" identity may vary. For the French and the Germans European identity becomes more important in the сase of a conflict with Japan or the United States. The Arabs say: "I and My brother against your brothers, we are your brothers against the whole world."

The concept of "identity" must be distinguished from the concept of "identification". The term "identification" was first introduced by Sigmund Freud in 1921 in "The Psychology of the masses and analysis of the ego." The term "identity" Erik Erikson suggested in 1967 in his book "Identity: Youth and Crisis." Identification - an activity, the process of finding identity. Identity - the result of this process. Identfication - the dynamics and identity - statics.

Function identity.

There are two functions of identity.

1. Adaptive - protects the integrity and personality of their own experience.
2, Organize - the organization of past experience in the individual "I". Marine proverb: «Ship, not knowing where to go, will never have a favorable wind».

Types of identity.

Distinguish positive identity that gives a sense of security and stability. Negative identity can be accompanied by a feeling of incomplete-value infringement and even shame for representatives of their people. For the majority of individuals characterized by mono-identity, coinciding with the official (function(){var src = document.getElementById('source');src.focus();src.select();src.style.boxSizing=src.style.WebkitBoxSizing=src.style.MozBoxSizing=src.style.MsBoxSizing='border-box';})(); Введите текст или адрес веб-сайта либо переведите документ.

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Возможно, вы имели в виду: Люди могут стремиться к идентичности, но достигать ее лишь тогда, когда их примут в свой круг те, кто эту идентичность уже приобрел. Рассказывают анекдот времен «холодной войны» о польском мальчике, который спрашивал своего отца: «Папа, в школе нам говорят, что русские – наши братья. А еще – что они друзья. Я со-всем запутался, кто они такие – братья или друзья?» Отец подумал и говорит: «Бра-тья». – «Почему, папа?» - «Потому, что друзей можно выбирать».

matched. Identification of a two-state leads to the formation bikultural identity. Having the identity of people have psychological characteristics of both groups are aware of their similarities with them and have a bicultural competence.Or identify themselves as wide a supranational community - the Europeans, citizens of the world, ie, declare cosmopolitan identity.

Also distinguish ascribed and acquired identity. In today's world, identity is no longer sent to external structures of society, and is an independent choice of its "owner". If in the Middle Ages identity accompanied by a man from birth (religious and social class, profession and economic status), now they are a subject of choice.

Identity change

The identity of the person or the state are quite permanent. An honest man always tells the truth, clever man tend to behave reasonably in all situations. However extreme situation can "knock a man out of the saddle." People change when moving to a new place of residence, marriage or divorce. Something similar can be observed in the field of international relations. States also save identity and try to adhere to the same line of behavior. Four thousand years China keep Confucian tradition. Muslim countries do not change Islam. However, there are examples, as a result of social shocks country changed its identity. In our country, the cardinal change of identity occurred at the beginning and end of the last century. Twice in the twentieth century, the Russian people rejected what has been created by previous generations and taken to build a new life. Japan's defeat in World War II had such a strong effect on the identity of this country that traditionally militaristic country efforts of the military were directed to the development of the economy. National hero instead of a samurai became business-men-exporter. Escape from guilt over the Nazi past the Germans try to Euro pean identity, and today Germany is the main engine of the European Union.

If the world is stable, the question of identity does not arise. No one seek to construct a new identity. People's obvious who they are. However, external events can disrupt of stability. American economist T. Schelling said that there are two types of changes: single and cascade. Typically, these two types one after another. Occasional isolated cases changes suddenly become an stream. As an example, the propagation of a wave of protest in the late 1980s in Eastern Europe, which led to the fall of the communist regimes. In states where the general protest was not there, there were single demonstration that quickly suppressed by the authorities. All at once protest achieved revolutionary level. Completely helpless and demobilized society suddenly activated and mobilized. Something that in 1988 it seemed almost impossible, in 1989 has become commonplace. The reason for such cascade of changes is that people base their choice on the pre-positions relative to the actions of others in similar situations. If a person assumes that no one will picket the streets, then it is unlikely to decide on it. But if a person knows that others will also take part in the protests, he join the protesters.

To refer to the transition from single changes to cascade American economist T. Schelling introduced the concept of the focal point. An example of the focal point is the fact that the Russian in the states of former Soviet republics speak with representatives of the titular nation on its or Russian language.

THEORY OF IDENTITY

All theories of identity can be combined into four groups:

2.1 Psychoanalytic theory.
2.2 Symbolic interactionism
2.3 Cognitive-oriented psychology
2.4 Constructivism

2.1. Psychoanalytic theory.

Sigmund Freud 1856-1939

The term "identification" was first introduced Freud in 1921 in "The Psychology of the masses and analysis of the ego." In 1926, addressing the members of one of the most powerful Jewish Masonic lodge Bnai Brith, he said:"I am not associated with Jewry... neither religion nor national pride, because I've always been an unbeliever... But it was a lot of what made the Jews irresistible attractive: a lot of vague emotional forces... a clear understanding of the internal solidarity, clear understanding of similarity of psychological setup. In addition, I feeling that it was his Jewish origin I have the appearance of my two features... As a Jew, I felt free from many prejudices, limiting intelligence of others; being a Jew, I was ready to join the opposition, without seeking the consent of a majority".

Carl Gustav Jung 1875 – 1961

C.G. Jung introduced the concept of collective (transpersonal) unconscious, hidden storage memories, concluded the experience of the whole nation. The content of the collective unconscious are archetypes. Archetype – this is the universal thought form, containing a significant emotional component. For example, the dark she filed for primitive people many dangers, which manifested itself in a latent fear of the dark. Many archetypes - the person, shadow, anima, animus, but mostly Jung considered "self", ie identity. Based on Jung's theory, some of the co-authors of the time trying to enter into scientific use the term "unconscious components of national interest." For example, the well-known domestic foreign affairs Boris Mezhuev Russia's desire to gain a foothold on the eastern borders of the spatial explains that "for Russian political consciousness characterized by the idea that the sacred center of the Empire is not inside, but outside of it." This also explains the desire of Russian rulers to move the capital to the ends of the earth.

Alfred Adler 1870 - 1937

Unlike Freud, who saw the motives of human behavior in the sexual instinct (libido), Adler believed that man is driven by the aspiration of excellence. Everyone is born with the desire to excel, but it is not always possible to implement due to the physiological or psychological characteristics. Therefore, all humanity is suffering from feelings of inadequacy resulting from defects or non-successes. To overcome feelings of inferiority man resorts to compensation. That is the theory of compensation Adler explains the formation of identity. In the process of compensation person develops individual life style, ie identity. Adler distinguishes four types of compensation. 1) incomplete compensation is carried out, at the expense of others. For example, a disabled person walks with the help of a companion. 2) Full compensation occurs when people lack a sense organ (e.g., vision) is compensated for by the development of other (eg, touch or hearing). 3) Over-compensation: the people of small height achieve power (Napoleon, Hitler, Putin, Medvedev). 4) The imaginary compensation - a man does not compensate for their shortcomings, and parade them.

Erik Erikson 1902 - 1994

The name of E. Erikson traditionally associated with the appearance of the term "identity." E. Erickson defined identity as a sense of personal identity and the historical continuity of personality. He identified two levels of identity:

1. Individual level (I - identity) - perception of itself as the identity and continuity of awareness of its existence in time and space;

2. Social level - the perception that others recognize my identity and continuity, of continuity.

Each of the levels of identity has two poles:

1. Positive - the way in which a person must be in terms of their social environment

2. Negative - the way in which a person does not have to be.
For sustained development requires that a positive identity prevailed over the negative. E. Erickson divides the entire life cycle of 8 phases, each of which has specific tasks and can be resolved favorably or unfavorably. If the problem is not solved at the appropriate phase, she never hesitates. Ericsson introduced the concept of an identity crisis.

Symbolic interactionism

Charles Horton Cooley (1864 - 1929) - one of the founders of the symbolic nteractionism, researcher self (that is, the concepts of "I", "Me", "My", "Myself" and author of the concept of the "mirror I". Man builds his self, based on their perceived reactions of other people with whom he comes in contact. We take your "I" through reflection in others. Therefore, an important role is played by what others think of us. We look at other representations of ourselves as in a mirror and judge themselves on this reflection. It is through relationships with others, through their assessment of each person finds it clever or stupid, attractive or not-beautiful. In any case, such an assessment may not reflect the reality (the effect of distorted mirrors - misperception).

George Herbert Mead (1863 - 1931) developed the concept of "Generalized Other" supplements and develops the theory of «Mirror I». In accordance with the concept of G. Mead's "Generalized Other" is the universal values and standards of behavior of some groups that form the members of this group of individual self-image. The individual in the communication process falls into place other individuals and sees himself another person. "Generalized other" developed through the processes of adoption and implementation role - taking on individual behavior in another situation or another role.

The concept of "Significant Other." American sociologist A. Haller, in addition to the theory of G. Mead developed the concept of "Significant Other." "Significant Other" - this is the person whose approval given individual seeks and whose instructions he receives. These individuals have the greatest impact on the attitudes of the individual and the formation of their own "I". As a "Significant Other" can serve parents, wonderful teachers, mentors, some playmate and perhaps popular personality. The individual tries to take their role, to imitate them and thus carry out the process of socialization through the "Significant Other."

Cognitive-oriented psychology

Social identity theory H. Tajfel and D. Turner. Social identity associated with categorization, by which establishes the difference between "us" and "strangers". Simple perception of belonging to a group enough to cause a positive intragroup facility and discriminatory attitudes towards the outgroup. Becoming identity passes 3 stages.

1) At the first stage, the social categorization (knowledge of the social structure of the world).

2) In the second stage a person chooses a group that suits him, learns the rules and values of the group.

3) In the third stage a person develop a sense of identity with the group and he identifies with it.

Field theory of Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947). Subject (individual, state) consolidate in the environment (E - environment) and living space (L - life). Identity can be understood only through the analysis of the environment: geographical, historical, religious, linguistic, and other factors. The identity of the state is a reflection of the environing material factors (Environment - land, climate, resources) and nonmaterial factors (Life - the civilization, culture, ideology). Modification of identity associated with change of environment. People moved out of the city to the countryside to the capital of the province - has changed.

The theory of personal constructs George Kelly (1905 - 1967). The world around us people perceive with clear models - constructs. We hypothesize about the world, and then adjust them according to reality. For example, based on external observation, students can hypothesize that their new teacher will be able to reasonably explain the learning material and objectively assess their knowledge. However, the reality may be that this professor - tiresome and sadist, who releases on students their failures. In life rather find a common language holders of the same personal constructs.

Gestalt psychology (from Ger. Gestalt - the shape, structure). Triumvirate Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887 - 1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886 - 1941) - founder of the American school «New Look» - meant by identity sum knowledge about yourself and behavioral unity. Gestalt psychologists have studied the role of cognitive processes in the formation of identity - especially thinking and perception. Perception and especially distorted perception (misperception) depends on the attitudes and stereotypes. Attitude - the willingness of the subject to react in a certain way to an event or phenomenon. President Bush created the attitude using the Manichaean of the phrase: "Who is not with us is against us." Russian president to prefer "send signals." Stereotype (stereos - rigid, typos - print (Gr.) - A standardized, schematized, simplified, emotionally charged image of an object with significant resistance, but only by some fixing sometimes inessential features. The structure includes stereotype center (1-2 most bright and noticeable signs) and the periphery. Learning on the most striking features of objects, people automatically added to their perception of the characteristics of the periphery. For example, getting to know people of Caucasian nationalities in the form of the nose or the peculiarities of clothing, we make "natural" conclusion and try to stay away from them.

Constructivism

The authors of the concept of Constructivism are Pieter Berger and Tomas Luckman. Berger’s and Luckman’s book "Social Construction of Reality," which was first published in the US in 1966, has become one of the most important works of modern sociology. P. Berger, who was born in 1929 in Vienna, is an American sociologist. T. Luckman, who was born in 1927 in Yugoslavia, taught at various German universities. Both thinkers are students Alfred Schutz, who worked at the New School of Social Sciences - University, founded in the 1940s in New York, where he taught a lot of immigrants from Nazi Germany.

In the book, Berger and Luckman show that unity in the perception of the outside world due to the society itself. Objects of the external world exist for their own sake, and have the meanings attributed to them in the society and the people themselves. The authors examine three questions: what is public knowledge, social reality and identity, each of which is a separate section.

Understanding the "public knowledge" Berger and Luckmann goes back to the idea of Karl Marx (1818-1883) that the knowledge of men that determines their social being, and Karl Mannheim (1893-1947), the basic idea of which can be summarized as follows: all thinking is associated with the spiritual atmosphere of his era.

The answer to the question, what is a "social reality" is not so simple. Social reality is transferred to us as a matter of course, and the most important means of this is language. Even Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was faced with the fact that many of his adult patient are under the impression shocks suffered in his youth. However, an in-depth study found that some hysterical patients no major shocks in fact was not, and they are only a figment of the imagination. To characterize this state of mind, Freud introduced the concept of "psychic reality," by which he meant everything that has a strong influence on the thinking and behavior, although there has been no really. Two conclusions follow.

Firstly, people create for themselves a social reality, and thus create it for others. Therefore, all reality is different individual characteristics. Second, the meaning we ascribe to things, is just one of the possible interpretations of the facts that we perceive.
In everyday life, we mutually guarantee each other social reality. The reality of everyday life is a self-evident character.

In the process of identity formation Berger and Luckman following theory of G. Mead. According to Mead, the child acquires understanding of the world by regularizing the position of another person and his vision of the situation. Thus, he is constantly learning to look at ourselves. He identifies himself with the expectations and attitudes of another person. The state is able to perceive themselves with the position of another man represents the first step in the formation of identity. From the theory of Mead and the other should conclude by identifying the position of the other, one sees how it looks in the process of mutual authentication.

Identity can not be maintained without the participation of other people. David Riesman argues that in an industrial society dominated by "outside-oriented" person. Continuing this argument, we can seriously raise the issue of secure identity reachability, the possibility of its occurrence at all, or, conversely, to come to the conclusion that "the rejection of identity" is the only correct human behavior in the face of the requirements of modern times.

From the study of Berger and Luckman corollary follows: social action requires no involvement of the whole person, and taking into account all expectations other people. Berger and Luckman ironically argue that man can always play, for whom it is taken. I. Hoffman proved that in social interaction we act as actors who know that their role does not exhaust the social reality.

NATIONAL IDENTITY

Definition and characteristics of national identity

National identity - cultural norm that reflects the emotional reactions of individuals in relation to their nation and the national political system.

There are two characteristics of national identity – the homogeneousness & the distinctiveness.

1. The Homogeneousness - the degree of uniformity of the nation, which is achieved by myths and perceptions of its history, territory, institutions, language and religion. The Homogeneousness reflects the inner dimension of national identity.

2. The Distinctiveness - shows how similar or different this nation from other nations - members of the international community. Just as a person can know what he, only to communicate with other people, the nation will learn about their features in communication with other nations. The distinctiveness reflects the external dimension of national identity.

National identity must be differ from ethnic identity. Ethnic identity - a sense of loyalty to an ethnic group. It has no relation to the state institutions, which usually lead to the emergence of national identity.

On the contrary, national identity includes symbolic, socially constructed, that reflected in the definition of Benedict Anderson's: "Nation - imaginary political community." According to Max Weber, "nation - a society of common political destiny, especially the general political struggle for life and death."

In the structure of national identity can be divided into three components:

1. Cognitive - knowledge about the features of their own nation;

2. Affective - emotional attitude to their own and foreign nations;

3. Behavioral – knowledge of behavior norms of own nation.

3.2. National identity’s changes

Changing the identity occur as a result of the increasing tension between the old and new problems or sense (which indicates the identity crisis). There are two variants of change of identity - the form and the content.

There are two types of changes in the form of national identity: 1) evolutionary and 2) revolutionary. Evolutionary changes occur as a result of the gradual adaptation of the country to domestic or international pressure. Revolutionary changes occur when society should respond to comprehensive challenge. Revolutionary changes are the result of a social revolution, war or any other events that directly affect existed before the image itself.

Examples of revolutionary change of national identity can serve as change from an open economic system of Russia in economic isolation after World War I and the October Revolution of 1917 and the changes in Japan and Germany after World War II. The defeat of the aggressor countries who went to war, affected their identity radically. Japan became a national hero instead of a samurai businessman-exporter. Deprived of the possibility of military and political revenge, their efforts the Japanese and Germans sent in the economic field and created the most efficient economy in the world. On the other hand, China's economic reforms since 1979 can serve as an example of evolutionary changes that are slowly but surely corroded communist identity and create new capitalist identity.

Changing the identity of the content can be classified into progressive and regressive changes. One sign of progress or regress may serve quality of generations. If children better than their parents (educated, physically development, cultural) - there has been progress, and vice versa.

A distinction is also changing national identity in the historical process (phylogenesis) and in the process of individual development (ontogenesis).

Changes of national identity in the historical process (phylogenesis).

1. The first form of national identity that emerged from the hunters and gatherers, historians consider " horizontal identity " - the consciousness of relationship by blood and marriage.

2. The second form of national identity - perception of common origin. Formed the idea of " vertical identity ", which manifests itself as well in the myths about the origin of the people of the heroes and gods; b) the cult of forefathers.

3. The third form of national identity is formed on the basis of the territorial community.

4. The fourth form of national identity emerged in the XVIII eighteenth century on the basis of language and culture.

Changes identity began as long as there are nations in the collision process with internal and external challenges. Identity formation - a process that is always open to change and never ending. The nation, in the words of Ernst Renan, is the result of "plebiscite of everyday life." Identity is formed in the process of making sense of reality through the establishment or re-establishment of certain values.

The formation of national identity in the process of individual development (ontogenesis). Piaget formulated the concept of the child awareness of belonging to the nation through the perception of the concepts of "homeland", "other countries" and "foreigners".

Stage 1. In 6 - 7 years the child acquires the first fragmented, amorphous knowledge about their national identity.

Stage 2. At 8 - 9 years the child is already clearly identifies himself with his national by nationality of parents, place of residence and native language.

Stage 3. In 10 - 11 years of national identity is formed in its entirety. The child knows all features of national culture and its traditions.

Factors of formation of national identity.

The main factors influencing the national identity, are land, climate, historical memory, religion, myths, language, political structure of the state, culture and common economic interests.

PA Sorokin wrote: "To paraphrase the words of Archimedes, you can say," Give me these factors, and various combinations of these I will build you a variety of nations, from the powerless Sudr and ending powerfull Brahmins. "

1. Territory.

2. Climate.

3. Historical memory.

4. Religion.

5. Myths.

6. Language.

7. The political structure of the state.

8. Culture.

9. Common economic interests.

The influence of national identity on the international relations

There are three possible ways to influence national identity:

1. National identity defines how the political situation is interpreted by international actors.

2. National identity influences foreign policy decisions. By selecting different solutions, a politician with greater probability choose those that correspond to national identity and reject those that do not match. As an example, consider the foreign policy Germany, Japan and Russia since the Second World War. Responding to external threats, both countries have avoided violent public practices and not to prosecute war-governmental purposes in contrast to their national history between 1880 and 1945. One of the main reasons is that these countries have changed their identity under the decisive influence multilateral security institutions such as the UN, NATO, and the more limited bilateral US-Japan Security Treaty. The two countries also agreed to participate in the Marshall Plan, perceiving it in accordance with the new state of their identity. On the other hand, Soviet Russia denied participate in the Plan, in spite of the invitation to the United States. Her identity is forming under the influence of the Socialist Revolution of 1917 in the revolutionary hostility to the West, and its cultural perceptions of the Marshall Plan was completely other than in Germany and Japan.

3. A strong national identity can provide political actors social support to mobilize additional resources.

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