Заняття № 10.

Modality as an extralingual category.

Modality as an extralingual category expressing the relation of content to reality has in English and Ukrainian common means of realization. These include:

a) phonological means (stress and intonation);

b) lexico-grammatical means (modal verbs);

c) lexical means (modal words and modal expressions) conveying subjective modality;

d) grammatical means (mood forms of the verb) conveying grammatical modality.

The expression of modal meanings by phonological means has often an identical realization in both languages, though in Ukrainian the lexical means such as modal particles and modal adverbs are mostly preferred here. These means may also express the most subtle meanings of suggestion, admonition, supposition, doubt, assuredness, etc. Among the most frequently used particles, which create such and other meanings, are аж, ж, хоч, б, би, і, й, -но, -то, саме, таки, etc., and also adverbs авжеж, адже, надто, певне, напевне, все ж, все ж таки, мов, немов, ніби and some others. The choice of the particle or modal adverb is predetermined by the content, though sometimes it rests only with the translator, who may employ stronger or weaker means to convey the modal meaning in the sentence.

CAN

has the following forms:

· can – the Present tense of the Indicative Mood.

· could – the Past tense of the Indicative Mood.

· could – the Subjunctive II Mood.

I. Can followed by the Indefinite Infinitive expresses:

1. PHYSICAL OR MENTAL ABILITY (CAPACITY, CAPABILITY) (in all kinds of sentences) (can = the Present tense; could = the Past tense)

Synonyms: to know how to do smth; to have the ability to do smth; to be able to do smth.

ü He can perform complicated operations.

ü Can she translate well?

ü He couldn’t feel or hear anything.

2. POSSIBILITY (in all kinds of sentences) (can = the Present tense; could = the past tense)

Synonyms: to be able to do smth; it is possible to do smth.

a) possibility due to circumstances (= circumstantial possibility) At the chemist’s you can get medicines of all kinds.

b) possibility due to existing rules or laws. In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.

c) possibility of the idea (= theoretical possibility) The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough.

3. PERMISSION (in affirmative sentences)

Synonyms: to permit, to be allowed.

ASKING FOR PERMISSION (in interrogative sentences). Can I take your book? – Yes, you can. (You can take my book.)

4. PROHIBITION (in negative sentences). You cannot take my book.

5. REQUEST (in interrogative sentences) (“Can” sounds polite; “Could” (= Subjunctive II) sounds very polite). Can (could) you tell me the way to the station?

I. Can followed by any form of the infinitive expresses:

1. STRONG DOUBT (IMPROBABILITY, INCREDULITY) (in the negative sentences)

(couldn’t is less categorical, it expresses greater doubt)

Synonyms: It is hardly possible (impossible, incredible, doubtful, next to impossible) that I refuse to believe that…; I doubt that …; I don’t think it possible that… He cannot (could not) be so old. She cannot (could not) be writing now. He cannot (could not) have been operated upon. They cannot (could not) have been keeping to a diet for several years.

2. SURPRISE, ASTONISHMENT (in general questions)

Synonyms: Is it possible that…?, Do you believe that…?

“Could” expresses greater surprise.

Can (could) he be so old?

Can (could) she be writing now?

Can (could) they have been keeping to a diet for several years?

3. EMOTIONAL COLOURING (in special questions), “could” is more emotional.

What can you know of such things?

How can you have made such a mistake?

What can he have been doing all this time?

4. UNREALITY (usually with the meaning of hypothetical possibility)

Synonyms: would be able to do…, would have been able to do…,

Only “could “ is used = the form of the Subjunctive II Mood.

If he were here he could help us.

If he had been there he could have helped us.

II. 1. “Could” (Subjunctive II) expresses REPROACH (in the meaning “could” is interchangeable with “might”)

You could have met at the station.

2. “Can/could” may be used in adverbial clauses of purpose.

I have bought you the magazine so that you can/could read it.

Yesterday I brought you the magazine so that you could read it.

MAY

has the following forms: may – the Present tense of the Indicative Mood

might – the Past tense of the Indicative Mood

might – the Subjunctive II Mood

I. May followed by the Indefinite Infinitive expresses:

1. PERMISSION (in the affirmative sentences)

Synonyms: to have permission to do smth; to be allowed to; to be permitted to.

I have two novels. So you may take one of them.

Mother said you might take some oranges.

2. ASKING FOR PERMISSION AND REQUEST (in the interrogative sentences)

May I see him in the hospital on Tuesday?

He asked me if he might rest for an hour.

Might I spend the week-end with you?

3. PROHIBITION (in the negative sentences)

“May” is seldom used to express prohibition (usually mustn’t, can’t, don’t, etc)

You may not enter the room until I say so.

You may not go swimming.

4. POSSIBILITY (in the affirmative sentences) OF THE FACT (or factual possibility).

One may often see them walking along the street.

I hope your dream may come true.

It was so quiet that we might hear a pin drop.

“May” is replaced by “can” in interrogative and negative sentences.

II. May followed by any form of the infinitive expresses:

1. SUPPOSITION IMPLYING DOUBT, UNCERTAINTY (in the affirmative and negative sentences).

“Might” is more uncertain

Synonyms: perhaps, maybe.

She looks pale. She may (might) be ill.

He may (might) not have recovered yet.

They may (might) have been waiting for us for an hour.

2. REPROACH (mainly in the affirmative sentences) only “ might ” (Subjunctive II) with the indefinite and perfect infinitives.

You might carry the parcel for me.

You might have opened the door for me.

He is shivering with cold. You might be more attentive to him.

3. UNREALITY (hypothetical possibility) only “might” (Subjunctive II), mainly in the affirmative sentences.

If someone were to make a mistake, the whole plan might be ruined.

If someone had made a mistake, the whole plan might have been ruined.

It was very windy and I might have caught cold.

III. May/might may be also used in:

(in this case “may” and “might” are called “quasi-subjunctive auxiliaries”)

1. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PURPOSE:

Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly.

He died so that others might live.

2. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONCESSION:

No matter how tired he may/might be, he will go to the concert.

3. OBJECT, PREDICATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSES AFTER VERBS OR NOUNS EXPRESSING WISH, FEAR, HOPE:

The prisoner had hopes that he might be set free. (attr. appositive)

Her constant fear is that she may/might have made some error. (predicative)

We all wished he might win. (object)

4. SET EXPRESSIONS:

a) May as well (might as well, might just as well) + Infinitive

I may as well take the child with me. (Я, мабуть, візьму дитину з собою. Мабуть, краще буде, якщо я візьму дитину з собою.)

You may as well give him the letter.

I might as well stay at home tonight.

b) It might have been worse.

Things are not so bad after all.

c) If I may say so …

If I may say so, I think you have treated him badly.

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