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TEXT B
Civil and Criminal Law Contrasted
Civil Law is a system of jurisprudence that regulates private rights and obligations. Civil law disputes include such cases as domestic relations, contract violations and many bank-related transactions.
Criminal Law is a system of jurisprudence enacted by legislation that deals with illegal conduct and provides fines and prison penalties for its violation. Offenses under criminal law include felonies and misdemeanors. Felonies are serious criminal law offences such as larceny, arson, armed robbery, murder and numerous bank-related crimes. Misdemeanors are minor offences such as moving traffic violations, petty theft and simple assault.
While there are many similarities between criminal law and civil law, there are also important distinctions. The civil law adjusts rights between or among individuals. The basis of the controversy may be a broken commercial promise, an injury caused by a defective product. The focus is on adjusting the rights of the parties to the transaction. The criminal law, on the other hand, focuses on the individual’s relationship to society. In enacting criminal statutes a government is saying that there are certain activities so inherently contrary to the public good that they must be flatly prohibited in the best interests of society.
A civil lawsuit is brought by one individual or company (the plaintiff) against another (the defendant). A criminal action, on the other hand, is always brought by an agent of the government (the prosecutor or district attorney) against the alleged wrongdoer. The essence of the civil suit is an injury that the defendant’s wrongful act caused to the individual plaintiff. The essence of a criminal prosecution is the injury that the defendant’s wrongful act caused society. Of course, there are usually individual victims of criminal acts. The suffering of those victims is not ignored by the criminal law, but greater emphasis is placed on the implications that such conduct has for society at large.
Notes:
| Deal with | – | мати справу з … |
| enact | – | вводити в дію |
| fines | – | штрафи |
| prison penalty | – | ув’язнення |
| offence | – | правопорушення |
| felony | – | тяжкий злочин |
| misdemeanor | – | незначне порушення порядку |
| minor | – | другорядний, незначний |
| adjust | – | корегувати |
| parties to the transaction | – | сторони угоди |
| on the other hand | – | з іншого боку |
| public good | – | громадське благо/ добро |
| plaintiff | – | позивач |
| defendant | – | відповідач, обвинувачений |
| civil suit | – | цивільний позов |
| criminal prosecution | – | карне обвинувачення, карне пере-слідування |
| flatly | – | (тут) категорично |
| essence | – | суть |
Answer the following questions:
1. What does civil law regulate?
2. What does criminal law deal with?
3. What are felonies?
4. What are misdemeanors?
5. What does the civil law adjust?
6. What does the criminal law focus on?
7. What must be flatly prohibited in the interests of society?
8. Who brings a civil lawsuit?
9. Who brings a criminal action?
10. What is the essence of the civil suit?
11. What is the essence of a criminal prosecution?
Exercises in Writing
Ex. 1. Write two paragraphs on: Civil and Criminal Law – similarities and distinctions.
Ex. 2. Translate the following sentences from Ukrainian into English.
1. Цивільне право – це система правознавства, яка регулює особисті права та обов’язки.
2. Карне право розглядає справи, пов’язані з правопорушеннями проти суспільства.
3. Правопорушення, які підпадають під юрисдикцію карного права, це тяжкі та менш тяжкі злочини проти суспільства.
4. Тяжкі злочини – це такі правопорушення як крадіжки, підпал, збройне пограбування, вбивство.
5. Між цивільним та карним правом існують важливі розбіжності.
6. Цивільне право регулює права окремо взятих осіб.
7. Карне право регулює відношення особи та суспільства.
8. Причиною суперечки може бути недодержання обіцянки або шкода, яку зазнав споживач в наслідок використання неякісних товарів.
9. Суть цивільного позову – це та шкода, яку зазнав позивач через протиправні дії відповідача.
10. Суть карного позову – це та шкода, яка була завдана суспільству протиправними діями обвинуваченого.
Oral Topic: Criminal Law and Business.
Discuss this topic using Exrs. 7,8 for Text A and Ex. 1 for Text B.
UNIT 4
Contract Law
Different Classifications of Contracts
Study the following vocabulary notes for the text:
| Enforce | здійснювати примусово e.g. to enforce a judgement – забезпечити виконання судового рішення санкціями; to enforce an agreement – забезпечити судовими санкціями виконання угоди |
| acceptance | прийняття, акцепт e.g. acceptance of an offer – прийняття пропозиції |
| offer | пропозиція |
| offeror | оферент; особа, яка робить пропозицію |
| offeree | адресат оферент, тобто особа, котрій робиться пропозиція |
| return promise | обіцянка/ зобов’язання, яке робиться у відповідь |
| bilateral contract | двосторонній договір/ контракт |
| unilateral contract | односторонній договір/ угода /контракт |
| intention | намір |
| express contract | явновиражений договір / контракт/ угода |
| implied contract | квазі-договір |
| valid contract | чинний договір |
| voidable contract | заперечний договір |
| void contract | нечинний договір, такий договір, який не має юридичної сили |
| bargain for | вести переговори про …, домовлятися про… |
| perform | виконувати e.g. perform a contract in good faith – добросовісно/ сумлінно виконувати дого-вір |
| capacity | дієздатність |
| consideration | зустрічне задоволення e.g. valuable consideration – цінне зустрічне задоволення |
| infer | виводити, презумувати |
| inference | висновок syn. deduction |
| conduct | поведінка |
| behaviour | поведінка |
Translate the following into Ukrainian:
A minor lacks capacity, so a contract which he/ she enters into is a voidable contract.
It was a valuable consideration.
A valid contract is enforceable by both parties.
An offeror is a person making an offer.
An offeree is a person to whom an offer is made.
A void contract never exists in the law.
A bilateral contract is formed by the offeror and the offerеe.
His intentions were not genuine.
TEXT A
Different Classifications of Contracts
Contract – agreements that courts will enforce – can be classified in several ways, depending upon the basis used. Sometimes the primary focus is upon the nature of the acceptance, which the offeror wants; if the offeror merely wants a return promise from the offeree, a bilateral contract is formed. On the other hand, if the offer is made in such a way that acceptance can only take place by the performance of a particular act, the performance of that act results in the formation of a unilateral contract.
A second basis for classification depends upon the extent to which the parties have manifested their agreement. If the intentions (and obligations) of the parties are set forth clearly in the language used, the agreement is an express contract. By contrast, if the intentions of the parties have to be inferred from their conduct, or where the language used shows an agreement, but requires inferences to be made as to the parties’ precise duties, the agreement is an implied contract.
A third basis for classification depends upon the extent to which a contract is enforceable. An agreement that is enforceable by both parties is a valid contract. A contract that one of the parties has a legal right to withdraw from is a voidable contract. And a contract which is so defective that never existed in the law is a void contract.
Other classifications are based upon such factors as the extent to which the terms of the contract were mutually bargained for, and the extent to which a contract has been performed.
Exercises
Ex. 1. Read and translate the text.
Ex. 2. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words and phrases from the text.
Sometimes your attention is concentrated on the quality of the acceptance.
It resulted in signing a unilateral contract.
Their determination to act was clear.
The intentions of the parties are always expressed clearly in the express contract.
You can’t understand their intention from their behaviour.
Certain deductions were made from the text of the agreement.
An agreement signed by a child has no effect.
If you talk with him aboutthe conditions of a sale, he may reduce the price.
The text of the contract is faulty.
A contract between the two parties is formed, if the offeror merely wants a return promise from the offeree.
(set forth; bargain; defective; nature; infer, conduct; is made; intention; is voidable; making; inferences)
Ex. 3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words and phrases:
F A contract is … if it has certain essentials.
F An … contract is one that is not capable of proof.
F … and … are the essentials of a valid contract.
F A contract made by a child is ….
F The … of one of the parties to a contract is also one of the essentials.
F An offer remains open to … for a reasonable time.
F By … the law means valuable consideration.
F This agreement is not supported by consideration and thus is not ….
F The … must be legal, must not be of an immoral nature.
F If the intentions of the parties are expressed clearly, the agreement is an ….
(consideration; voidable; acceptance; consideration; valid; capacity; express contract; enforceable; unenforceable; offer and acceptance)
Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences:
F A contract is any agreement between two or more parties ….
F It must meet six essential conditions ….
F It must be signed by ….
F The contract must result in ….
F The object of the contract ….
F The proper form of the contract is one of its ….
(that is enforceable in court; to be enforceable; two capable parties; some consideration to both parties; must be legal; essentials)
Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:
1. Can contracts be classified only in one way?
2. Is the nature of the acceptance, which the offeror wants to get, important?
3. When is a bilateral contract formed?
4. In what way must an offer be made to lead to the formation of a unilateral contract?
5. What kind of a contract is called an express contract?
6. Are the intentions of the parties clearly set forth in the language used in an implied contract?
7. What do we call an agreement that is enforceable by both parties?
8. What contract is voidable?
9. Is a void contract, strictly speaking, a contract at all?
10. What features of the contract are its other classifications based on?
Ex. 6. Ask questions to fit these answers:
1. The offeror sometimes merely wants a return promise from the offeree.
2. It happens that acceptance can only take place by the performance of a particular act.
3. A second basis for classification depends upon the extent to which the parties have manifested their agreement.
4. In an express contract the intentions of the parties are clearly set forth.
5. In an implied contract the intentions of the parties have to be inferred from the contract.
6. A third basis for classification is the extent to which a contract is enforceable.
7. A valid contract is enforceable by both parties.
8. If one of the parties has a legal right to withdraw from the contract, it is called a voidable contract.
9. A contract that never existed in the law is a void contract.
10. One of the classifications is based on the extent to which a contract has been performed.
Ex. 7. Read the text and match these headings with the paragraphs:
– The contract is an agreement that courts will enforce.
– The extent to which the intentions of the parties are manifested in the contract is one of the basis for contract classification.
– Valid, voidable and void contracts.
– Other basis for contract classification.
Ex. 8. Make up an oral summary of the text using the headings from ex. 7.
TEXT B
Different Types of Contracts
Contracts may be divided into:
1) Contracts of record;
2) Specialty contracts;
3) Simple or parole contracts.
A contract of record is the obligation imposed by the entry of the proceedings in the parchment rolls in a court of record.
A specialty contract is in writing, executed under seal and delivered.
A simple contract is either an oral promise or a written promise not under seal, or the one, which is created by implication. Strictly speaking, a parole contract is an oral one, but the term is often used to denote all simple contracts.
Notes:
| Contract of record | – | договір за рішенням суду; договір, висловлений у публічному акті |
| specialty contract | – | договір за печаткою |
| simple or parole contract | – | простій договір, не за печаткою, усний договір |
TEXT C
A Voidable Contract
A voidable contract is an agreement in which one of parties possesses the legal right to have the contract set aside.
The two most common situations in which such a right exists are where there is a lack of capacity, as in minors’ contracts, and where reality of consent is lacking, as in contracts marked with fraud, mistake, or duress.
Minors generally have the right to disaffirm their contracts any time before reaching the age of 18 plus a reasonable time thereafter, even as to contracts that have been fully performed. In such a situation, the minor is required to return the consideration if able to do so. Besides, the right to disaffirm is a one-sided one, being possessed only by the minor.
Even if both parties to a contract are competent, the contract can be set aside if marked with fraud, innocent misrepresentation, or duress, and in some circumstances—on the ground of mistake.
Notes:
| Set aside | – | відмінити, анулювати |
| disaffirm | – | відмінити, анулювати |
| lack of capacity | – | відсутність правоспроможності/ дієздатності |
| minor | – | неповнолітній |
| fraud | – | шахрайство |
| duress | – | примус |
| innocent misrepresentation | – | ненавмисне введення в оману |
Answer the following questions:
1. What is a voidable contract?
2. When does the right to set aside a contract arise?
3. Who has such a right?
4. Must the minor return the consideration it he sets aside the contract?
5. Can only minors set aside the contract if it is marked with fraud, innocent misrepresentation, or duress?
Exercises in Writing
Ex. 1. Write a short paragraph on:
A) the right of a minor to disaffirm the contract;
B) other reasons for which a contract can be disaffirmed.
Ex. 2. Translate the following sentences from Ukrainian into English.
1. Договір – це угода, яку суди можуть примусити виконати через введення санкцій.
2. Якщо оферент хоче отримати обіцянку в обмін на свою обіцянку, то створюється двосторонній договір.
3. Якщо оферта зроблена в такий спосіб, що її прийняття можливе тільки шляхом виконання певної дії, то створюється односторонній договір.
4. Якщо наміри сторін по договору чітко і недвозначно (clearly) висловлені в тексті договору, то це – явновиражений договір.
5. Якщо наміри сторін по договору випливають з їхньої поведінки, і формулювання тексту договору таке, що показує згоду, але вимагає тлумачення конкретних обов’язків сторін, то договір кваліфікується як квазі-договір.
6. Існують заперечні та нечинні договори, які не мають юридичної сили. Останні навіть не можна вважати договорами.
Oral Topic: Contract Law.
Discuss this topic using Exrs. 7,8 for Text A and Ex. 1 for Text B.
UNIT 5
Formation of the Contract
Study the following vocabulary notes for the text:
| Agreement | 1. згода (e.g. agreement to sell – згода продати щось); 2. угода (e.g. agreement by parol – проста угода) |
| constitute | складати (e.g. constitute an offer – складати/ бути пропозицією) |
| genuine interest | справжня зацікавленість/ інтерес |
| reasonably definite | визначений належним чином/ розумно визначений |
| fail to meet a requirement | не задовольнити угоду |
| preliminary negotiations | попередні переговори |
| major obligations | головні зобов’язання |
| terminate | припиняти, закінчувати |
| by act of the parties | через дію сторін |
| by operation of law | через силу закону |
| revoke | відзивати |
| revocation | відзив |
| rejection | відмова, відхилення |
| subsequent | наступний; той, що настав пізніше |
| occur | траплятися, статися |
| adjudication of insanity | оголошення в судовому порядку про неосудність (особи) |
| subject – matter | предмет (договору і т.ін.) |
| illegality | протизаконність |
| medium of communication | засіб зв’язку |
| suspend | призупинення |
| offerer/ or | оферент, адресат оферти |
| offerree | особа, якій роблять пропозицію/ оферту |
| offer | пропозиція, оферта |
| acceptance | прийняття (пропозиції) |
Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian:
Agreement is а serious, definite and communicated offer and acceptance.
If a new term is added, the offeree’s communication is a counteroffer and a rejection of the offer.
We could see that the offeree’s communication was a “definite” acceptance of the offer.
The definite acceptance of the offer by the offeree constitutes an acceptance even if it has an additional term.
A revocation of the offer is allowed before the requested act is performed.
TEXT A
Formation of the Contract
The first element of a contract is an agreement – an offer followed by an acceptance. In order for a communication to constitute an offer, the courts require it to manifest a genuine interest to contract, be reasonably definite, and be legally communicated to the offeree. Communications failing to meet requirement constitute mere “preliminary negotiations”. The common law rules require that the offer included all major obligations of the parties.
Once an offer is made, it remains open until terminated by act of the parties or by operation of law. The most common acts of termination of the contract by the parties are revocation and rejection. If a revocation or rejection occurs, any subsequent acceptance is too late and does not result in the formation of a contract. Termination by operation of law results where any of the following conditions occur: death or adjudication of insanity of either party, destruction of the subject-matter of the contract, or intervening illegality.
In order for a communication of the offeree become an acceptance, it must show a real interest to accept and must be in conformity with all the terms of the offer.
The modern rule is that the acceptance of a bilateral offer is effective, when sent, if the offeree uses a reasonable medium of communication.
As to unilateral offers, the traditional rule has been that an acceptance is not effective until the offeree has completed performance of the requested act. However, an increasing number of courts are taking the view that once the offeree has begun performance, the offeror’s right to revoke is suspended until the offeree has had a reasonable time in which to complete the requested performance.
Exercises
Ex. 1. Read and translate the text.
Ex. 2. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words and phrases from the text:
Both parties should show that their real objective is to make a contract
The communication of the offeree didn’t create an acceptance.
If one of the parties is judged mentally ill by a court, it results in an automatic termination of the contract.
A contract is made when the acceptance is mailed.
The offeror’s right to revoke was delayed.
The offer must be legally corresponded to the offeree.
He insisted on holding negotiations beforehand.
Acceptance of the offer that takes place after a rejection or revocation is too late.
Ex. 3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words and phrases:
F A legally enforceable contract must involve … of the parties.
F A contract is not enforceable in case of ….
F The simplest element of a contract is ….
F The … must be definite, serious and communicated to the offeree.
F One party to a contract failed ….
F The contract was terminated by … as the subject-matter of it proved to be illegal.
F In order to be … the contract must involve the agreement and consent of two capable parties.
F A contract is any agreement between two or more parties that is … in court.
F Six … be met for a contract to be legally enforceable.
F It was too late … the offer.
(enforceable; in any agreement; a genuine interest; to meet the requirements; intervening illegality; enforceable; to revoke; requirements; must involve the agreement; operation of law)
Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences:
F An offer remains open to acceptance ….
F To communicate an offer the offeror used ….
F Death of either of the parties to the contract results in its ….
F The offeree must show ….
F Termination by operation of law takes place in case of ….
F A bilateral offer is effective if the offeree sends his acceptance using ….
F The offeror’s right to revoke an offer is suspended once ….
(destruction of the subject-matter of the contract; the offeree has begun performance; a real intent to accept the offer; automatic termination; for a reasonable time; a reasonable medium of communication).
Ex. 5. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the first element of a contract?
2. What is an agreement?
3. What does the court require in order for a communication to make an offer?
4. Is the legality of communication of the offer to the offeree one of the requirements of court?
5. What can be viewed as mere preliminary negotiations?
6. How long does an offer remain open?
7. Is termination by operation of law an automatic termination?
8. Must the acceptance of the offer by the offeree be in conformity with all the terms of the offer?
9. What medium of communication must the offeree use to send his acceptance of a bilateral offer?
10. When is the offeror’s right to revoke his/ her offer suspended?
Ex. 6. Ask questions to fit these answers:
1. An agreement is an offer followed by an acceptance.
2. An offer must demonstrate a genuine interest to the contract, be reasonably definite and be legally communicated.
3. If the communication doesn’t meet the first requirement, it is considered only as ‘preliminary negotiations’.
4. The offer remains open until terminated by act of the parties or by operation of law.
5. If a revocation of an offer took place, the offeree can’t make any subsequent acceptance.
6. If any of the parties is judged insane, the termination of the contract by operation of law takes place.
7. The communication of an acceptance must show a real interest to accept and be in conformity with all the terms of the offer.
8. Once the offeree has begun performance, the offeror’s right to revoke is suspended.
Ex. 7. Read the text and match these headings with the paragraphs:
– An agreement as the 1st element of a contract.
– The right of revocation and rejection.
– A real interest to accept the offer and conformity with all the terms of the offer.
– A reasonable medium of communication.
– The traditional rule concerning unilateral offers.
Ex. 8. Make up an oral summary of the text using the headings from ex. 7.
TEXT B
Contract Requirements
The four elements of an enforceable contract are agreement, consideration, legal and serious purpose, and capacity. In order for such an agreement, or contract, to be valid and legally enforceable, consideration, the value or benefit that a party provides to the others with whom the contract is made, must be exchanged by each party to the contract.
In addition to consideration, an enforceable contract must involve a legal and serious purpose. Agreements made in a joking manner, or related to purely social matters, or involving the commission of a crime are not enforceable as legal contracts. An agreement between two competitors to fix the prices for their products is not enforceable as a contract because the subject-matter is illegal and carrying out the agreement would violate the law.
Notes:
| Exchange | – | обмінюватися |
| relate | – | відноситися |
| fix | – | встановлювати, фіксувати |
| violate the law | – | порушувати закон |
Answer the following questions:
1. What four elements make the contract enforceable?
2. What is consideration?
3. Does an enforceable contract involve a legal and serious purpose?
4. Which agreement can’t be considered a legal one:
a) an agreement to sell goods;
b) an agreement made in a joking manner;
c) an agreement involving the commission of a crime?
5. Why is an agreement to fix the prices for the products not enforceable as a contract?
Exercises in Writing
Ex. 1. Write 2 paragraphs on the formation of the contract.
Ex. 2. Translate the following sentences from Ukrainian into English:
1. Повідомлення повинне містити справжню зацікавленість, бути в достатній мірі певним та бути зробленим адресату в офіційній законній формі. Тільки тоді воно стане пропозицією (офертою).
2. Якщо пропозиція (оферта) зроблена, вона залишається відкритою аж до припинення її дії певними кроками з боку сторін, або через застосування закону.
3. Смерть будь-кого із сторін припиняє дію оферти.
4. Існує стадія попередніх переговорів.
5. Найпоширенішими діями з боку сторін по припиненню дії договору є відзив оферти та відхилення її.
6. Повідомлення відповідало всім умовам оферти.
7. Право оферента відізвати свою оферту призупиняється до тих пір, доки адресат оферти не матиме розумного проміжку часу, аби виконати те, про що домовлялися.
Oral Topic: Formation of the Contract.
Discuss this topic using Exrs. 7,8 for Text A and Ex. 1 for Text B.
UNIT 6
Remedies for a Broken Contract
Study the following vocabulary notes for the text:
| Enforceable | такий, що може бути виконаний у примусовому порядку; такий, що має позивну силу |
| enforce | забезпечувати виконання санкцією, наполягати на виконанні |
| refrain (from) | утримуватися (від чогось) |
| meet (smth) | задовольняти (щось) |
| valid | чинний, юридично діючий |
| breach of contract | розірвання контракту |
| live up to the terms of contract | виконувати умови контракту |
| remedy | засіб судового захисту, санкція |
| expectation | надія, очікування |
| cancel | відмінити. анулювати |
| bargain | угода |
| sue | подати позов до суду |
| damages | 1) збитки 2) відшкодування збитків |
| damage | завдавати шкоду/ збитки |
| specific performance | дійсне виконання, виконання контракту у натурі |
| special | особливий |
| unique | унікальний |
| purchaser | покупець, той, хто платить гроші |
| argue | доказувати, сперечатися, переконувати |
| replace | замінити |
| legal | законний, правовий, юридичний |
| recourse | звертання за допомогою |
| recourse | висувати регресну вимогу |
| purpose | мета |
| redress | відшкодувати |
| wronged | потерпілий, потерпіла (сторона) |
| vastly | значно |
| hotel staff | персонал готелю |
| the only | єдиний, один єдиний |
| recover | отримати щось як відшкодування збитків |
| annoyance | роздратування |
| due to having his holiday spoilt | тому, що його відпустка була загублена |
| discretion | розсуд |
| in discretion | на розсуд |
| equitable | справедливий; заснований на праві справедливості |
| injunction | судова заборона, постанова суду, яка забороняє щось робити |
| rescission | анулювання, відміна |
| restitution | відновлення первісного правового статусу, реституція |
| prohibitory | такий, що забороняє |
| restrain | утримувати(ся) |
| terms | умови |
| repay | відшкодувати борг |
Note the distinction between damage and damages:
Damage is the loss suffered by the plaintiff.
Damages are the financial compensation awarded to him.
Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian:
A contract is any agreement between two or more parties that is enforceable in court.
If one party breaches (violates) the contract’s terms the injured party can go to the court.
A violation of a valid contract is called a breach of contract.
If one party fails to live to the terms of the contract, you may refuse to live up to your part of the bargain as well.
Contract law offers a variety of remedies to protect the injured party.
The wronged party might simply decide to cancel the contract, or sue the other party for damages.
If money cannot replay the damage you suffered, you may demand specific performance.
The purpose of remedies for breach of contract is to redress injuries to the wronged party.
Money damages are the main form of remedy for contractual breach.
Injunction is a court order that prohibits a certain activity from taking place.
TEXT A
Remedies for a Broken Contract
A contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law. It is an agreement between two or more parties to do something or refrain from doing something. A contract must meet several conditions to be enforceable. If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the injured party can go to court.
A violation of a valid contract is called a breach of contract. What can one party do if the other party fails to live up to the terms of the contract? Contract law offers a variety of remedies designed to protect the reasonable expectations of the parties.
As an injured party to a breach of contract you might simply decide to cancel the contract and refuse to live up to your part of the bargain. You might decide to sue the other party for damages up to the amount you lost as a result of the breach.
If money cannot repay the damage you suffered, you may demand specific performance – that the other party fulfills all the terms of the original contract. This remedy is usually used when special or unique goods are involved. For example, if an individual contracted to sell a piece of land and later refused to sell it, a court may order that contract be fulfilled as originally agreed. The purchaser may argue that no other piece of land can replace the land mentioned in the contract.
The purpose of remedies for breach of contract is to redress injuries to the wronged party. The wronged party can go to court to enforce the contract provisions and, in some cases, collect damages – financial compensation for the injury. Money damages are the main form of remedy for contractual breach. For example A paid £5 for a two week winter sports holiday. It differed vastly from what was advertised. There was very little holiday atmosphere, the hotel staff did not speak English, and in the second week he was the only guest at the hotel. A recovered £125 damages for his annoyance due to having his holiday spoilt.
In their discretion, courts may also, in appropriate circumstances (such as where money damages would be inadequate) involve equitable remedies such as injunction, reformation, rescission and restitution.
Injunction is a court order that prohibits a certain activity from taking place. It is a prohibitory injunction.
Exercises
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