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King Arthur – a legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries, who, according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical existence is debated and disputed by modern historians.
The textual sources for Arthur are usually divided into:
· written before Geoffrey's Historia (known as pre-Galfridian texts, from the Latin form of Geoffrey, Galfridus)
· written afterwards, which could not avoid his influence (Galfridian, or post-Galfridian, texts).
The earliest literary references to Arthur come from Welsh and Breton sources. There have been few attempts to define the nature and character of Arthur in the pre-Galfridian tradition as a whole, rather than in a single text or text/story-type.
Three key strands to the portrayal of Arthur in this earliest material:
(according to Thomas Green)
1. A peerless warrior who functioned as the monster-hunting protector of Britain from all internal and external threats. Some of these are human threats, such as the Saxons he fights in the Historia Brittonum, but the majority are supernatural.
2. A figure of folklore and of magical wonder-tales, the leader of a band of superhuman heroes.
3. A close connection to the Welsh Otherworld, Annwn. On the one hand, he launches assaults on Otherworldly fortresses in search of treasure and frees their prisoners. On the other, his warband in the earliest sources includes former pagan gods, and his wife and his possessions are clearly Otherworldly in origin.
Welsh and Breton sources:
· The collection of Welsh heroic death-songs known as Y Gododdin (The Gododdin), attributed to the 6th-century poet Aneirin.
· Several poems attributed to Taliesin, a poet said to have lived in the 6th century, also refer to Arthur, although these all probably date from between the 8th and 12th centuries. They include "Kadeir Teyrnon" ("The Chair of the Prince"),"Preiddeu Annwn" ("The Spoils of Annwn"), and "Marwnat vthyr pen[dragon]" ("The Elegy of Uther Pen[dragon]").
· a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen, "Pa gur yv y porthaur?" ("What man is the gatekeeper?").
· The Welsh prose tale Culhwch and Olwen (c.1100).
· the Welsh Triads, a collection of short summaries of Welsh tradition and legends which are classified into groups of three linked characters or episodes.
In addition to these pre-Galfridian Welsh poems and tales, Arthur appears in some early Latin texts:
· the Historia Brittonum
· the Annales Cambriae.
· in a number of well-known vitae ("Lives") of post-Roman saints (the earliest probably dates from the 11th century).
· in the Legenda Sancti Goeznovii (the early 11th century).
· In William of Malmesbury's De Gestis Regum Anglorum and Herman's De Miraculis Sanctae Mariae Laudensis.
The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae But how much of this narrative was Geoffrey's own invention is open to debate. However, while names, key events, and titles may have been borrowed, "the Arthurian section is Geoffrey's literary creation and it owes nothing to prior narrative." (Brynley Roberts)
The popularity of Geoffrey's Historia and its other derivative works is generally agreed to be an important factor in explaining the appearance of significant numbers of new Arthurian works in continental Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly in France.
The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance. Up to c.1210, continental Arthurian romance was expressed primarily through poetry; after this date the tales began to be told in prose.
Whereas Arthur is very much at the centre of the pre-Galfridian material and Geoffrey's Historia itself, much of this 12th-century and later Arthurian literature centres less on Arthur himself than on characters such as Lancelot and Guinevere, Percival, Galahad, Gawain, Tristan and Iseult. Arthur’s character also alters significantly. In both the earliest materials and Geoffrey’s work he is a great and ferocious warrior, who personally slaughters witches and giants and takes a leading role in all military campaigns, whereas in the continental romances Arthur's role is frequently that of a wise, dignified, even-tempered, somewhat bland, and occasionally feeble monarch.
The development of the medieval Arthurian cycle and the character of the "Arthur of romance" culminated in Le Morte d'Arthur, Thomas Malory 's retelling of the entire legend in a single work in English in the late 15th century. Malory based his book—originally titled The Whole Book of King Arthur and of His Noble Knights of the Round Table —on the various previous romance versions, and appears to have aimed at creating a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. Le Morte D'Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England, published by William Caxton in 1485.
Arthurian literature thrived during the Middle Ages but waned in the centuries that followed until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media.
Discussion questions:
1. King Arthur is one of the most famous legendary figures of Great Britain. What was unusual about the birth of Arthur? In what way did he become the king?
2. Think of any legend connected with the personality of king Arthur you find interesting.
3. Into what groups are textual sources about king Arthur divided?
4. What texts are generally referred to as pre-Galfridian texts? Explain the meaning of this term.
5. How many strands to the portrayal of Arthur in the earliest material exist? Speak about each of them in detail.
6. What Welsh and Breton sources telling about king Arthur do you know?
7. Was king Arthur mentioned in any pre-Galfridian Latin text?
8. What text turned the legendary Arthur into a figure of international interest?
9. Who started the genre of Arthurian romance in continental Europe? When did it happen?
10. Find information about the most famous works about king Arthur and his knights created by Chrétien de Troyes? What characters were added to the legend thanking to this writer?
11. What transformation did Arthur’s character undergo in the works of European writers in the 12th and 13th centuries?
12. What work summarized all the legends created about king Arthur and his knights by the end of 15th century in one?
13. In the contemporary world the legends about King Arthur and his knights are extremely popular and find their further development in numerous works of literature and cinema. But the situation was quite different by the end of Middle Ages. This character was almost forgotten. What trends in art in general and literature in particular prepared the glorious return of King Arthur and his knight of the Round Table? Prepare a visual presentation about them.
Important names: who is who?
Merlin is a legendary figure best known as the wizard featured in Arthurian legend. Merlin to a large extent is the creation of Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Born of a mortal woman, Merlin was sired by an incubus, the non-human from whom he inherits his supernatural powers and abilities. Merlin matures to an ascendant sagehood and plans the birth of Arthur through magic and intrigue. Later authors have Merlin serve as the king's advisor until he is bewitched and imprisoned by the Lady of the Lake (or Niviane/Viviane in some other versions of the legend)
Guinevere is the Queen of King Arthur. In medieval romances, one of the most prominent stories is her love affair with Arthur's chief knight Sir Lancelot. This story first appeared in Chrétien de Troyes's Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart in the 12th century and became an important motif in Arthurian literature.
Sir Lancelot (or Launcelot) du Lac (/lænsələt/ /djulæk/) was the greatest champion among the Knights of the Round Table in the Arthurian legend. The character is first introduced by Chrétien de Troyes.
Lancelot is the son of King Ban of Benwick and Elaine. While Lancelot is an infant, his father is driven from his kingdom by his enemy Claudas. Ban and Elaine flee, carrying the child with them. As Elaine is tending to her wounded husband, Lancelot is carried off by the Lady of the Lake who raises the child in her magical kingdom (it is from this upbringing that Lancelot earns the surname du lac (English: "of the lake").
The Lady of the Lake sends him to King Arthur's court, where he becomes a knight at the behest of Sir Gawain. Almost immediately upon his arrival, Lancelot falls in love with the Queen. This love affair with Queen Guinevere brings about the end of Arthur's kingdom.
Upon hearing the news of Arthur's death, Lancelot finds that Guinevere has become a nun. She blames all the destruction of the Round Table upon her and Lancelot's love. Lancelot declares that if she will take upon her a life of penitence, then so will he. Lancelot then retires to a hermitage to live the remainder of his life. Eventually he becomes a priest, later conducting rites over the deceased body of Guinevere (who has become an abbess). Six weeks after the death of the queen, Lancelot dies.
Morgan le Fay ( alternatively known Morgain or Morgana) is a powerful enchantress in the Arthurian legend. Morgan is the daughter of Arthur's mother Lady Igraine and her first husband Gorlois, so that Arthur, the son of Igraine and Uther Pendragon, is her half-brother. In Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, she is married, unhappily, to King Urien, with whom she has the son Ywain. Morgan is an indirect instrument of Arthur's death, though she eventually reconciles with him and serves as one of the queens who take him to Avalon, so he could be healed.
Morgause /mɔrˈɡeɪz/ is the mother of Gawain and Mordred, both key players in the story of King Arthur and his downfall. She is also a sister of Morgan le Fay and the wife of King Lot of Orkney, as well as the mother of Gareth, Agravain, and Gaheris.
Years later, her spouse joins the failed rebellions against Arthur that follow King Uther's death and the coronation of his heir. Shortly after her husband's defeat, Morgause visits the young King Arthur in his bedchamber, ignorant of their familial relationship, and they conceive Mordred. Her husband, who has unsuspectingly raised Mordred as his own son, is slain in battle by King Pellinore. Her sons depart their father's court to take service at Camelot, where Gawain and Gaheris avenge Lot's death by killing Pellinore. Nevertheless, Morgause has an affair with Sir Lamorak, a son of Pellinore and one of Arthur's best knights. Her son Gaheris discovers them and beheads Morgause in bed, but spares her unarmed lover. Gaheris is consequently banished from court.
Mordred or Modred (/modr d/is known as a notorious traitor who fought King Arthur at the Battle of Camlann, where he was killed and Arthur fatally wounded. He is known as Arthur's illegitimate son by his half-sister Morgause (though in many modern adaptations Morgause is merged with the character of Morgan le Fay).
Gawain () is the son of Arthur's sister Morgause (or Anna) and King Lot of Orkney and Lothian, and his brothers are Agravain, Gaheris, Gareth, and Mordred. Gawain is often portrayed as a formidable, courteous, and also a compassionate warrior, fiercely loyal to his king and family. He is also depicted as a superior warrior and potential heir to the throne of Camelot until he is tragically struck down by his traitorous brother Modred's forces.
Gawain was well known to be the most trustworthy friend of Sir Lancelot. When Guinevere is found guilty, Lancelot returns to help her to escape from the castle. King Arthur sends a few knights to capture Lancelot, and Gawain refuses to take part of the mission.
The battle between Lancelot and Arthur's knights results in Gawain's two sons and his brothers, except for Mordred, being slain. This begins the estrangement between Lancelot and Gawain, thus drawing Arthur into a war with Lancelot in France. While King Arthur is deployed to France, Mordred takes control of the throne, and takes advantage of the kingdom. Gawain wages two wars between Mordred and Lancelot. He is mortally wounded in a duel against Lancelot who later lies for two nights weeping at Gawain's tomb. Before his death, Gawain forgives Lancelot and asks him to join forces with Arthur and save Camelot.
Sir Bedivere is the Knight of the Round Table, sir Lucan’s brother, who serves as King Arthur's marshal. In several English versions of Arthur's death Bedivere and Arthur are among the few survivors of the Battle of Camlann. After the battle, at the request of the mortally wounded king, Bedivere returns Excalibur back to the Lady of the Lake.
Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain): Key facts
author · Geoffrey of Monmouth
genre · a pseudo-historical prose work
language ·Latin
time and place written · completed c.1138
setting (time and place): an imaginative and fanciful account of British kings from the legendary Trojan exile Brutus to the 7th-century Welsh king Cadwallader.
Pre-reading tasks:
Find additional information about the personality of Geoffrey of Monmouth and the story of creation of his work Historia Regum Britanniae. What other kings but for Arthur were mentioned in this text? Are there any stories not connected with King Arthur which were used by later authors?
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain) is not a reliable source, as many of the events described in it are historically unfounded. From literary point of view it is, however, highly regarded, and has been a source of inspiration for many writers throughout centuries. The heroic deeds of King Arthur which are described in the book have been the subject of many subsequent literary works.
Chapter IV
(…) At these words, all of them, encouraged with the benediction of the holy prelate, instantly armed themselves, and prepared to obey his orders. Also Arthur himself, having put on coat of mail suitable to grandeur of so powerful a king, placed a golden helmet upon his head, on which was engraven the figure of a dragon; and on his shoulders his shield called Priwen; upon which the picture of the blessed Mary, mother of God, was painted, in order to put him frequently in mind of her. Then girding on his Caliburn, which was an excellent sword made in the isle of Avallon, he graced his right hand with his lance, named Ron, which was hard, broad, and fit for slaughter. After this, having placed his men in order, he boldly attacked the Saxons, who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge, as their manner was.
(…) he drew out his Caliburn, and, calling upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward with great fury into the thickest of the enemy’s ranks; of whom (such was the merit of his prayers) not one escaped alive that felt the fury of his sword; neither did he give over the fury of his assault until he had, with his Caliburn alone, killed four hundred and seventy men. The Britons, seeing this, followed their leader in great multitudes, and made slaughter on all sides (…)
Comprehension Tasks:
1. Whose names were the following: Caliburn, Priwen, Avallon, Ron, Mary.
2. Make up a list of the armour King Arthur wore and the weapons he carried into battle. Be ready to explain what each piece was used for.
3. What are the Christian references in the text?
4. How many men did King Arthur kill according to the text? What was the outcome of the battle?
Find in the text, translate and learn by heart the following words: benediction, instantly, grandeur, to engrave, a lance, to gird, merit, multitude, slaughter.
Translate the following phrases: encouraged with the benediction of the holy prelate; coat of mail suitable to grandeur of so powerful a king; in order to put him frequently in mind of her; he graced his right hand with his lance, fit for slaughter; who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge, as their manner was; neither did he give over the fury of his assault until he had, with his Caliburn alone, killed four hundred and seventy men;
Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur
Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel: Key Facts
Born the exact date unknown, after 1415 and before 1418
to Sir John Malory of Winwick, who had served as a Justice of the Peace in Warwickshire and as a member of Parliament, and Lady Phillipa Malory, heiress of Newbold.
Carrier between 1434 and 1439 attained his majority (at the age of 21);
before 8 October 1441 knighted, became a professional soldier and served under the Duke of Warwick;
1443 elected to Parliament, serving as a knight of the shire for Warwickshire
1449 elected as member of Parliament for the Duke of Buckingham's safe seat of Great Bedwyn.
1451 Malory and 19 others committed a series of crimes, especially violent robberies, rising past 100.
arrested and imprisoned in Maxstoke Castle, but escaped and returned to Newbold Revel.
1451 sent to the Marshalsea Prison in London
1461 pardoned at the accession of Edward IV
1468 entered into a conspiracy with the new Earl of Warwick, Richard Neville, to overthrow King Edward IV.
1468 The plot was discovered and Malory was imprisoned.
1470 the temporary return of Henry VI to the throne was followed by Malory's final release from prison.
Creative activity Le Morte d'Arthur (The Death of Arthur), the first major work of English language prose, based on Arthurian mythology (first published in 1485 by William Caxton)
Died 14 March 1471
Buried Christ Church Greyfriars, near Newgate Prison.
Pre-reading exercises:
1. Read more information about the biography of Thomas Malory and think of the reasons why the story of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table was so important for this writer.
2. Check on-line resources for the plot of the book. In what way is the book structured? Who are the main characters of the book but for King Arthur?
3. In the chapter you are going to read the departure of King Arthur to Avalon is depicted. Do you know what events preceded the events of this extract? What place was called Avalon and why was it so special for the dying king?
4. What do you know about the knights mentioned in the chapter: Sir Launcelot, Sir Gawaine, Sir Bedivere and Sir Lucan?
Le Morte d'Arthur Book 21 CHAPTER V 
How King Arthur commanded to cast his sword Excalibur into the water, and how he was delivered to ladies in a barge.
BUT I may not stand, mine head works so. Ah Sir Launcelot, said King Arthur, this day have I sore missed thee: alas, that ever I was against thee, for now have I my death, whereof Sir Gawaine me warned in my dream. Then Sir Lucan took up the king the one part, and Sir Bedivere the other part, and in the lifting the king swooned; and Sir Lucan fell in a swoon with the lift, that the part of his guts fell out of his body, and therewith the noble knight’s heart burst. And when the king awoke, he beheld Sir Lucan, how he lay foaming at the mouth, and part of his guts lay at his feet. Alas, said the king, this is to me a full heavy sight, to see this noble duke so die for my sake, for he would have helped me, that had more need of help than I. Alas, he would not complain him, his heart was so set to help me: now Jesus have mercy upon his soul! Then Sir Bedivere wept for the death of his brother. Leave this mourning and weeping, said the king, for all this will not avail me, for with thou well and I might live myself, the death of Sir Lucan would grieve me evermore; but my time hieth fast, said the king. Therefore, said Arthur unto Sir Bedivere, take thou Excalibur, my good sword, and go with it to yonder water side, and when thou comest there I charge thee throw my sword in that water, and come again and tell me what thou there seest. My lord, said Bedivere, your commandment shall be done, and lightly bring you word again.
So Sir Bedivere departed, and by the way he beheld that noble sword, that the pommel and the haft was all of precious stones; and then he said to himself: If I throw this rich sword in the water, thereof shall never come good, but harm and loss. And then Sir Bedivere hid Excalibur under a tree. And so, as soon as he might, he came again unto the king, and said he had been at the water, and had thrown the sword in the water. What saw thou there? said the king. Sir, he said, I saw nothing but waves and winds. That is untruly said of thee, said the king, therefore go thou lightly again, and do my commandment; as thou art to me lief and dear, spare not, but throw it in. Then Sir Bedivere returned again, and took the sword in his hand; and then him thought sin and shame to throw away that noble sword, and so he hid the sword, and returned again, and told to the king that he had been at the water, and done his commandment. What saw thou there? said the king. Sir, he said, I saw nothing but the waters and waves wan. Ah, traitor untrue, said King Arthur, now hast thou betrayed me twice. Who would have weened that, thou that hast been to me so lief and dear? and thou art named a noble knight, and would betray me for the richness of the sword. But now go again lightly, for thy long tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for I have taken cold. And but if thou do now as I bid thee, if ever I may see thee, I shall slay thee with mine own hands; for thou wouldst for my rich sword see me dead.
Then Sir Bedivere departed, and went to the sword, and lightly took it up, and went to the water side; and there he bound the girdle about the hilts, and then he threw the sword as far into the water as he might; and there came an arm and an hand above the water and met it, and caught it, and so shook it thrice and brandished, and then vanished away the hand with the sword in the water. So Sir Bedivere came again to the king, and told him what he saw. Alas, said the king, help me hence, for I dread me I have tarried over long. Then Sir Bedivere took the king upon his back, and so went with him to that water side. And when they were at the water side, even fast by the bank hove a little barge with many fair ladies in it, and among them all was a queen, and all they had black hoods, and all they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur. Now put me into the barge, said the king. And so he did softly; and there received him three queens with great mourning; and so they set them down, and in one of their laps King Arthur laid his head. And then that queen said: Ah, dear brother, why have ye tarried so long from me? alas, this wound on your head hath caught over-much cold. And so then they rowed from the land, and Sir Bedivere beheld all those ladies go from him. Then Sir Bedivere cried: Ah my lord Arthur, what shall become of me, now ye go from me and leave me here alone among mine enemies? Comfort thyself, said the king, and do as well as thou mayst, for in me is no trust for to trust in; for I will into the vale of Avilion to heal me of my grievous wound: and if thou hear never more of me, pray for my soul. But ever the queens and ladies wept and shrieked, that it was pity to hear. And as soon as Sir Bedivere had lost the sight of the barge, he wept and wailed, and so took the forest; and so he went all that night, and in the morning he was ware betwixt two holts hoar, of a chapel and an hermitage.
Comprehension Questions:
1. What role did Sir Gawaine play in the situation of King Arthur being wounded?
2. What happened to Sir Lucan?
3. What did King Arthur ask Sir Bedivere to do?
4. Where did Sir Bedivere go and what did he do? What was the reason for him to act this way?
5. What was the question King Arthur asked him upon his returning? Was he satisfied with the answer?
6. Why did King Arthur call Sir Bedivere ‘traitor untrue’?
7. What happened when Sir Bedivere threw the sword into the water?
8. Where did King Arthur ask to take him?
9. Whom did Sir Bedivere see when they reached the water side?
10. Where did King Arthur go?
11. What did the queen tell to King Arthur? Can you guess what her name was?
12. Why was Sir Bedivere crying?
13. What did Arthur tell him to calm him down? What was the King’s last request?
14. What was the life of Sir Bedivere like since the departure of King Arthur?
Vocabulary practice:
Translation exercises (in written form):
Translate the following phrases: in the lifting the king swooned; the death of Sir Lucan would grieve me evermore, but my time hieth fast; one of their laps King Arthur laid his head; do as well as thou mayst, for in me is no trust for to trust in; so he went all that night, and in the morning he was ware betwixt two holts hoar, of a chapel and an hermitage;
Translate the following sentences: 1. Alas, said the king, this is to me a full heavy sight, to see this noble duke so die for my sake, for he would have helped me, that had more need of help than I. 2. Then Sir Bedivere returned again, and took the sword in his hand; and then him thought sin and shame to throw away that noble sword, and so eft he hid the sword, and returned again, and told to the king that he had been at the water, and done his commandment. 3. But now go again lightly, for thy long tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for I have taken cold. And but if thou do now as I bid thee, if ever I may see thee, I shall slay thee with mine own hands; for thou wouldst for my rich sword see me dead. 4. And when they were at the water side, even fast by the bank hove a little barge with many fair ladies in it, and among them all was a queen, and all they had black hoods, and all they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur.
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