Three Organizational Methods.

The Essay

If you can write a good paragraph, you should be able to write a good essay (composition). The difference is that the essay requires more material and more planning. The principles of unity and coherence are basically the same.

A paragraph has	An essay has
A topic sentence	An essay sentence
A controlling idea	A (essay) thesis statement
Every sentence supports the topic sentence and the controlling idea	Every paragraph supports the essay sentence and the essay statement
Basic materials of a paragraph development are details, reasons, and illustrations	Basic materials of an essay development are paragraphs of details, reasons, and illustrations
Sentences are composed and arranged in a plan of major and minor supports	Paragraphs are composed and arranged in a plan of major and minor supports
Sentences are linked together with appropriate means of coherence	Paragraphs are arranged and linked together with appropriate means of coherence

Most academic writing is longer than one paragraph. In fact, paragraphs are usually building blocks for essays. An essay is a group of paragraphs about one topic. Like a good paragraph, a good essay is unified and coherent. To achieve unity and coherence in both you can use the same techniques. You can classify essays and paragraphs according to the same purposes (process, cause/effect, etc.), but an essay contains more details and examples than a paragraph. Therefore, it is a larger piece of writing.

To guide readers through a piece of writing presented in an essay, a writer can provide four basic kinds of signals:

(1) Thesis and forecasting statements, to orient the readers to ideas and organization; (2) paragraphing, to group related (взаимосвязанный) ideas and details;

(3) cohesive devices, to connect ideas to one another and bring about coherence and clarity;

(4) transitions, to signal relationships or shifts in meaning.

Each essay has three major parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. These parts correspond to the three major parts of the paragraph, but they are longer. An essay’s introductory paragraph contains some general statements about the essay topic as its thesis statement (тезис, положение, тема очерка, сочинения ) or its main idea.

Compare the structures of a paragraph and an essay.

The topic sentence The introductory Paragraph (Introduction)

The Body The Body

(Major and minor supports) (Body paragraphs)

The Concluding sentence The Concluding Paragraph (Conclusion)

Each paragraph in the body of an essay supports the thesis statement. Each contains a topic sentence and major, and minor supporting sentences that are linked together coherently and that develop the essay topic.

The essay’s conclusion, like the paragraph’s concluding sentence summarizes the essay’s main ideas and brings it to an end.

The thesis statement of an essay is similar in purpose to the topic sentence of a paragraph. It presents the topic and the controlling idea for the whole essay. The thesis statement also often acts as a guide to other important information:

(1) the purpose and corresponding organizational structure of the essay

(2) the writer’s point of view or opinion about the topic

To help readers find their way in a written work, the writer can provide two kinds of orienting information: thesis statements that declare the main point and forecasting statements that, in addition to stating the thesis, previews the way the thesis will be developed.

The thesis statement is usually a single statement that declares the essay’s main idea. Like the focus of a picture the thesis statement directs the reader’s attention to the one idea that brings all the other ideas and details into perspective.

A further important decision is where to place the thesis statement. Most readers expect to find some information at the beginning of the text that will give them a context for the essay. They expect essays to open with thesis statements, and they need such statements to orient them, particularly if they are reading about a new and difficult subject. A thesis statement placed at the beginning of an essay helps give readers a sense of control over the subject, enabling them to anticipate the content of the essay and more easily understand the relationship between its various ideas and details.

In short, informal essays and in some argumentative essays, a writer will give a direct statement of the thesis at the end. Such a thesis is designed to bring together the various pieces of information or evidence introduced in the essay; in many cases, a concluding thesis is also used to point the way toward future developments.

A special kind of thesis statement, a forecasting statement not only identifies the thesis but also gives an overview of the way that thesis will be developed.

Some thesis statements mention the subtopics that will be treated in the essay. Each of these subtopics then becomes a separate paragraph in the body of the essay. Other thesis statements do not provide the subtopics, but they indirectly say what they will be. The thesis statement is the “key” to the essay. Without this key it is difficult to unlock the meaning of the essay.

Direct Thesis Statement: The financial problems that small residential arts colleges face are the direct result of a decrease in the number of college-age students nationwide, an increase in the proportion of those students who prefer technical and professional training over the traditional arts and the rapid and far-reaching effects of the distance educational movement.

Indirect Thesis Statement: There are a number of causes for the financial problems that small residential arts colleges face.

Read the thesis statements and answer the questions:

1. Four major components make up the marketing mix of any successful business: the product itself, the product price, the means of product distribution, and the means of product promotion.

- What is the topic of this essay?

- What subtopics will be discussed?

- Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

- How many paragraphs will there be in the body of this essay?

- Does the writer express an opinion in this thesis statement? If so, what is it?

2. Depression strikes an increasing number of people each year and its effects can be devastating.

- What is the topic of this essay?

- Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

- What is the purpose of this essay?

3. You only have to scratch the surface to see how damaging competitive sports are to the overall psychological development of children.

- What is the topic of this essay?

- Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

- Does the writer express an opinion in this thesis statement? If so, what is it?

Essay Introduction

The introduction is what readers read first, so it is very important. The introduction presents the essay topic in general. In addition, through the thesis statement, the introduction guides the reader to the essay’s organization and purpose. The introduction should also include a “hook” (крючок, приманка). Something that attracts readers’ attention and makes them want to read further.

Techniques for Writing Essay Introduction

You can use many techniques for writing introductions. The ones described here are hooks to engage readers.

1. Posing an interesting or controversial question or questions. This technique works well as a hook to draw the reader into the essay. After writers pose the questions, they give general ideas and background information and, finally, the thesis statement. (p.15)

2. Employing the funnel (воронка ) method. This is probably the most common technique to attract the reader. An introduction that uses the funnel method begins with general ideas about the topic. These ideas gradually become more and more focused until they reach their most specific and focused point in the thesis statement. The funnel method is very common in academic writing. It is not always the most attention-getting method, but it is very effective in introducing readers to complex topics.

3. Using a relevant quotation. Writers who use this technique are careful to choose quotations written by authorities or by someone who says something especially relevant to their topic. They can then follow this quotation with related background information, which leads into the thesis statement. (p. 16)

4. Making a startling ( сенсационный) or dramatic observation or describing a scene in a dramatic, humorous, or otherwise interesting way. (p. 16) Further background information then follows the “dramatic” hook of the opening, which leads to the thesis statement.

5. Turning an argument “on its head” (p. 17) This fairly sophisticated attention-getting introduction begins with the sentence or two presenting a point of view that is really the opposite of what the writer wants to say. At the end of this introduction, the writer overturns this idea completely and presents the thesis statement, which is the opposite of what he or she started with. This type of introduction is especially useful when the purpose of the essay is to give an opinion or make an argument.

Read the essay introduction and answer the questions

“You are what you eat”. This saying is true, to a great degree, for all of us. Most of the food we take in acts as fuel and is gradually digested and converted to the muscle and other types of tissue in our bodies. However, recent research has confirmed that some foods do more than merely contribute to our physical health; some foods are important to our emotional health as well. These foods are referred to by doctors and psychologists as “mood foods” or “comfort foods”, and their importance to our overall health cannot be overestimated. The process by which mood foods act on our bodies to relieve stress and to remote an overall feeling of well being is a three-step process.

- Which “hook” technique is used in this introduction?

- What is the thesis statement? Write it out.

- Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

-

Introduction Checklist

Did I use a hook?

Does my introduction flow logically from general to more specific?

Does my thesis statement provide the reader with a clear guide for the rest of the essay?

Is the purpose of my essay clear?

The Body of the Essay

The body of the essay is usually presented in several paragraphs. Paragraph breaks (oтступ) are a relatively modern custom. It has changed in some forms of writing today. Many writers, especially in business now set paragraphs apart from the rest of the text by leaving an extra line of space above and below each paragraph.

The lack of paragraph breaks makes reading extremely difficult. Paragraphing helps readers by signaling when a sequence of related sentences begins and ends. It tells you when you can stop holding meaning in suspension (нерешенность, неизвестность). Paragraphing also helps readers judge what is most important in what they are reading. Writers typically emphasize important information by placing it at the two points where readers are most attentive – the beginning and the ending of a paragraph. Many writers put information to orient readers at the beginning of a paragraph and save the most important information for the last.

A writer can give special emphasis to information by placing it in a paragraph of its own.

The body of an essay contains enough paragraphs to explain, discuss, or prove the essay’s thesis statement. In each body paragraph the writer should discuss one aspect of the essay’s main topic. Each body paragraph has its own topic sentence, supporting sentence and a transition or concluding sentence. To ensure unity and coherence, good writers arrange the body paragraphs in logical order and join them with appropriate transition expressions that make them read smoothly (спокойно).

Essay Conclusions

The conclusion in an essay is the last paragraph or two. The purposes of all conclusions are

- to signal the end of the essay

- to add coherence by summarizing or resulting the essay subtopics

- to add coherence by restating the essay thesis

- to leave the reader with the writer’s final opinion

- to make a prediction or suggestion about the topic of the essay

One thing you should NOT do in a conclusion is introduce and begin discussing a new topic. If you do, you will leave the reader with an unfinished feeling and break the unity of the essay.

Conclusion Checklist

Does my conclusion successfully signal the end of my essay?

Does my conclusion add coherence to the essay by

a) restating the essay thesis?

b) mentioning again the principle of organization and/or the items classified in my essay?

c) summarizing or restating the essay subtopics?

Does my conclusion:

a) leave the reader with my final opinion?

b) make a prediction or suggestion about the essay’s topic?

Final Draft Checklist

Does my introduction have an effective hook? (Will my introductory question/s hook the audience?)

Did I include a thesis statement that contains a clear topic and controlling idea?

What principle of organization did I use to classify…?

Did I use only one principle of organization?

Does each of my body paragraphs have a clear topic sentence?

Does each of my body paragraphs treat one topic?

Did I use transition expressions between body paragraphs to help make the essay coherent?

Does my concluding paragraph have clear purposes?

Does my concluding paragraph successfully signal the end of my essay?

Does my entire essay have unity and coherence?

Does my essay have a title?

Strategies for Essay Writing.

(1) Narration presents a sequence of actions taking place over a period of time. This strategy is more typical for literary writing, academic writing not very often uses this strategy.

Descriptionas a writing strategy uses naming, ‘detailing and comparing.

Naming answers the questions ” What is it ” and “ What are its parts or features ”. It uses the power of observation. Particular word choice is up to the writer.

‘Detailing also uses the power of observation and answers the questions:

What size is it?

How many are there?

What is it made of?

Where is it located?

What is its condition?

What is its use?

Where does it come from?

What is its effect?

What is its value?

To add details to names, add modifiers – adjectives, phrases and clauses. Modifiers make nouns more specific by supplying additional information about them.

Comparing brings imagination into play and uses simile and metaphor. A simile expresses similarity by using the word like or as to give comparison. Metaphor describes a thing as though it were the other. You should try to avoid using clichéd expressions, comparisons that are so overused that that they have become predictable and do not enrich a description.

The kiss was as sweet as honey.

I am as busy as a bee.

What is a Classification Essay?

Classification (sometimes called classification and division) is the process of establishing categories, of grouping items that share certain characteristics.

Sometimes one can wish to break categories down into smaller units (division).

Writers use classification essays to group items according to their similarities and differences. Items are combined into a number of discrete groupings and then each group is labeled. In many instances classifying is a matter of dividing something into its constituent parts in order to consider the elements of each part separately. Classification involves more than just making a list of items. When you classify, you impose order on the list. To decide on the order to use, you choose a principle of organization. This is the guideline or method that divides items into groups.

Paragraphs and essays are categorized according to their purpose. This organizing principle allows the writer to divide paragraphs and essays into different groups and categories based on the purposes for which they are written.

As a strategy, classification and division serve as a means of organization, of creating a framework for the presentation of information.

The most important concept to keep in mind in classifying or dividing is that you are establishing a variety of levels. You must not confuse major and minor categories. The following guidelines should help you to prevent this error.

1. Use only one basis at a time (if you classify cars according to the size do not include another basis. say, colour).

2. Choose a basis consistent with your audience and purpose (always take into account the possible readers of your paper: your group mates, teachers, schoolchildren and so on).

3. Avoid overlap (совпадать, пересекаться, частично покрывать) (Make sure that no single item could logically be placed in more than one category of your classification or in partition. Overlapping generally results from changing the basis of classification.).

4. Be inclusive (ничего не пропускай) (be sure to include all the categories).

5. Arrange the categories in a logical sequence (after establishing your categories and subcategories of classification or partition, arrange them according to some reasonable plan: time (first to last), space (top to bottom), importance (most to least, and so on.).

Classification is common in professional and academic writing. For example, scientists classify types of genes; business people categorize marketing strategies; dancers classify dance steps. The same set of items can be classified in different ways using different principles of organization.

Study this example:

Items to be classified: cars

Possible principles of organization: size, price, power, comfort, speed, safety.

When you divide materials up, you must be sure the division meets several basic requirements. First of all, it must be appropriate to your writing purpose. You shouldn’t divide material simply to have smaller bits of information. Your divisions should be consistent (последовательный), exclusive (исключающей) and complete. These may be defined as follows:

Consistency. The resulting parts must all be based on the same principle of division.

Exclusiveness. Parts resulting from the division should not overlap.

Completeness. No important parts should be omitted in the division.

The principle of division, one uses, depends primarily on one’s purpose. Most topics can be divided in a number of ways. For example, based on the purpose of the study, a team of sociologists might divide a survey’s respondents according to age, education, education, income, answer given to a particular question. The division results from the writer’s analysis of the topic and of all information gathered regarding the topic plus any idea or insights he or she may have. Only full and thoughtful analysis of the topic and a carefully defined principle of division can assure that the division or system of classification will be consistent, exclusive, and complete.

To maintain unity in classification essays, it is important to use only one organizing principle when you classify the items in a group. If you use more than one, the classification system breaks down, and your essay will lose unity.

For example, you might classify flowers according to their colour: red, orange, yellow etc. If you then include a group labeled “tall”, you will have changed the principles of classification and will confuse your reader.

There are many techniques for adding coherence to paragraphs and essays. Effective use of transition expressions is one of the most important of these techniques.

Transition expressions: one/another/ a third… + classifying word

one + classifying word

Function: begins the classification process; gives the first category

Use: One is a determiner and is followed by another classifying noun or pronoun which specifies the organizing principle.

Examples: There are several types of cars, depending on their size. One type is the

compact car.

Flowers are often categorized according to their colour. One popular

colour is red.

another + classifying word

Function: to signal the introduction of a category that comes after another category

Use: Like one, another is a determiner and is followed by a classifying word such as type, or category or by another classifying noun or pronoun that specifies the organizing principle.

Examples: Another type of car is the mid-sized car.

Another very popular colour for flowers is blue.

A Process Essay

The authors use process essays to explain the steps or stages in processes or procedures. A process essay is organized chronologically, that is in order of time. Process essays describe steps or stages that follow each other in time. This time can be relatively short (the steps involved in winking your eye) or relatively long (the stages involved in the formation of river canyons).

Process essays can be of two types: instructional and analytical.

Instructional process essays are “how-to” essays. They instruct the reader about how to do something, for example, how to ride a bike, how to plan a vacation, or how to pass a difficult test. The reader is being taught how to recreate a process.

Analytical process essays tell the steps involved in how something works or how something happens or happened. This type of process essays doesn’t give directions for readers to follow. Analytical process essays are often used in academic writing.

For example, to explain the steps in an experiment. Anthropologists use this type of writing to explain, for example, the marriage customs of different cultures. Specialists in literature use analytical process essays to explain the steps they follow when analyzing poetry and prose. The reader is learning about a process but is not necessarily expected to recreate that process.

Identify each process essay thesis statement as instructional (I) or analytical (A).

1. Follow this recipe and you’ll end up with a heavenly angel food cake. (I)

2. The digestive process involves several related steps.

3. All it takes to build a beautiful deck is the right tools and these easy-to-use guidelines.

4. To test the chlorine in your swimming pool water, use this test kit and follow the instructions carefully.

5. By 7.00 in the morning, a sheep rancher has already completed a series of very demanding chores to get his sheep ready for the day.

The structure of a process essay contains the following components:

1. A general introduction that tells the reader what the process is and what it is used for.

2. A step-by-step description of the process

3. A conclusion that summarizes the description and tells how the steps work together.

Introductions in Process Essays

As with other essay introductions, process essay introductions name the topic (the process to be described). They also give the reader information about the essay’s organization (chronologically-ordered steps or stages). In process essays, the thesis statement is often very direct. It can be something as simple as “There are four steps in tying a shoe,” or it can include a persuasive idea, as in “The four steps involved in tying a shoe can be quite difficult for a 5-year-old child.” This statement would require the writer to both describe the process of shoe tying and discuss its difficulties for a young child.

One effective hook for process essays is the funnel method.

In writing introduction answer these six questions about the process:

1. What is the process?

2. What is its function?

3. Where and when does it take place?

4. Who or what performs it?

5. How does it work?

6. What are its principle steps?

The body of the process description treats each major step as if it were a process. Although the structure of the step-by-step description should be chronological, don’t present the steps as if they were individual processes that have nothing to do with one another. In many cases, one step leads to another causally. Your readers will find it easier to understand and remember your description of a process if you clearly explain the causality in addition to chronology.

The steps should be discussed in the present tense, unless you are writing about a process of the historical past.

Conclusions in Process Essays

Process descriptions usually do not require long conclusions. The conclusion to a process essay, like all conclusions, should bring the essay to a close. It often sums up the process and discusses its results. A short paragraph, summarizing the principle steps is all that is needed.

Unity in Process Essays

It is sometimes a challenge to make your process essay unified – to decide what to include and what to omit. Your process should be complete and not to leave out any important steps. However, make sure you don’t have more information than you need, and be careful not to include irrelevant material.

Missing Steps in a Process

In the list of steps, one important step or stage is missing. Insert it where it belongs.

1. Planting a tree

ü Find a place for the tree.

ü Dig a hole the width and depth of the root ball.

ü Remove any covering from the root ball of the tree.

ü

ü Fill the hole back up again, and tamp the soil down around the tree.

(Put the tree in the hole) (p.60-61)

The list includes one or more irrelevant steps or stages. Draw a line through the irrelevant information.

1. Basic steps that scientists follow in using the Scientific Method of inquiry.

ü They formulate a hypothesis and base a prediction on this hypothesis.

ü They test hypothesis using one of a number of techniques.

ü (They usually enjoy their work.)

ü They analyze the results of the tests.

ü They draw conclusions about the hypothesis

ü They end the experiment or revise the hypothesis and begin again.

Coherence in Process Essays

In process essays, coherence mainly involves the order of information.

Writers must present the steps in process essays in the correct, or chronological, order. Chronological order adds coherence to all process essays. It is especially important in instructional process essays, in which the reader should be able to recreate the process that you describe. (p. 62-63)

Transition Expressions

First (second, third, etc.) next, now, then, and finally; before, after, once, as soon as, and while; during, over, between+ noun phrase

First (second, third, etc.) next, now, then, and finally

Function: First signals the first step after step in a process. Second, third, next, now, and then signal steps after the first step. Finally signals the last step in a process.

Use these words as adverbs. They usually come at the beginnings of sentences and are followed by a subject and a verb. With the expression of finally, they can also be used in the middle or at the end of a sentence to indicate chronological order.

Example: You should put the egg in the water first.

Next, heat the water until it boils.

Finally, remove the pot from the heat and wait fifteen minutes.

Punctuation note: A comma should follow first (second, third, etc.),next, now, or finally when it occurs at the beginning of a sentence. No comma is necessary when it occurs in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

(2) before, after, once, as soon as, and while;

Function: Signal chronological order to indicate which steps in a process come before, after, or at the same time as others. Before signals a step that precedes another step. After, once, and as soon as signal a step that occurs after another. As soon as means right after. While is used to describe two steps or stages in a process that happen simultaneously, at the same time.

Use: These words are all subordinating conjunctions which are used in adverb clauses.

Example: After you put the egg in the water, heat it until it boils.

While the water is heating, peel the vegetables.

Eat the egg and the vegetables as soon as they are cooked.

(3) during, over, between+ noun phrase

Function: Indicate chronological order. During and over mean “throughout or inside a time period”. Between indicates a step that happens within a specific interval or period of time.

Example: Over/During the first few weeks, many changes occur.

Between week 1 and week 3, the plants will grow rapidly.(p.66-67)

(Practice writing a process essay pp. 78-83)

A Comparison/Contrast Essay.

When you analyze and evaluate two or more things, you compare those things. As soon as comparison begins, contrast edges its way in, for rarely are two things totally alike. Comparison brings similar things together for examination, to see how they are alike. An effective comparison demonstrates one of the three general purposes: two things thought to be different are shown to be quite similar; two things thought to be similar are shown to be quite different; or two things, although comparable, are shown to be not equal (that is, one is shown to be better than the other). Contrast is a form of comparison that emphasizes their differences.

Writers use a comparison/contrast essays when they want to either compare or contrast two or more things.

The first step in comparing and contrasting two or more items is to establish a basis (or several bases) on which to evaluate the items. If you have only one basis, comparing and contrasting is a simple task. The more criteria you use in your comparison and contrast, the more precise your analysis will be.

Three Organizational Methods.

In order to plan a comparison/contrast essay, it is important to list the points that you will use to compare or contrast.

When you write a comparison/contrast essay, you can choose one of three organizational methods.

1. Comparison only. If there are many more similarities than differences, you might decide to do a comparison essay and mainly point out the similarities of the two subjects.

2. Contrast only. If there are many more differences than similarities, you might decide to do a contrast essay and primarily focus on the differences between the two subjects.

3. Comparison/contrast essay. If the number of similarities and differences is about the same, you might find that an essay discussing both similarities and differences is appropriate.

There are two ways to organize comparison and contrast in writing: in chunks ( целиком ) ( whole-by-whole ) and in sequence ( part by part ).

In chunking, each object of the comparison is presented separately; comparison discussion is organized around each separate item or thing being compared. For example, a chunked comparison of two motorcycles would first detail all features of the first and then consider all features of the second. Schematically, a chunked comparison looks simple enough. It focuses on each item as a separate entity. This strategy requires that a writer organize all the points of comparison before starting to write.

In sequencing, the items are compared point by point; discussion is organized around characteristics of the items being compared. Detailed comparison or contrast is more effective in the part-by-part structure. For example, a sequenced comparison of two motorcycles would analyze the motorcycles feature by feature. Sequenced comparison is closer to the way people think about similarities and differences in things. It is possible to take up each point of comparison as it comes. A successful comparison always has three qualities: a valid basis for comparison, a limited focus, and information that will catch a reader’s attention.

One special form of comparison is the analogy, in which one part of the comparison is used simply to explain the other. Scientists have always made good use of analogy in both their thinking and their writing. Analogies almost always use very familiar objects for comparison trying to explain something new and unfamiliar. Writers often offer analogies to make their descriptions and explanations more vivid and entertaining.

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