General Education Courses

Many institutions of higher education require students to take courses in several general areas, such as English, Mathematics, and Social Science. The purpose of these general education requirements is to give students a more balanced education.

The Russian Federation became an independent state in December 1991 as a result of the collapse of the USSR. During the Communist era the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was the largest of the USSR’s 15 republics. The present Russian Federation occupies the same territory as the former RSFSR. Since independence, Russia has adopted a new constitution and a system of government.

Russia is a federal and presidential republic governed under a constitution that took effect in 1993, replacing the 1978 constitution of the RSFSR. The central government is composed of three independent branches:

- Executive Power is concentrated in the executive branch, which is headed by a president. He or she is directly elected by the people to a four-year term and cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. The president serves as the commander in chief of the armed forces and chairs the Security Council, which is the central decision-making body for matters of defense. With the defense minister, the president has control over Russia’s nuclear weapons. The president appoints the prime minister, who is second in command. The appointment is subject to ratification by the State Duma, the lower house of parliament; if the State Duma rejects the candidate for prime minister three times, the president can dissolve the legislature and call for new elections.

- The legislative branch is represented by the Federal Assembly, which is Russia’s bicameral national legislature. It is composed of an upper house, called the Council of the Federation, and a lower house, the State Duma. The Council of the Federation includes two representatives from each of the administrative units that make up the Russian Federation. The State Duma has 450 members. Voters elect half of the Duma members by casting a vote for a specific party listed on the ballot; these 225 seats are divided among the qualifying parties by proportional representation. The other 225 Duma members are elected individually from electoral districts throughout the country.

- The highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court, composed of 19 judges who are appointed by the president and approved by the Council of the Federation. Below the Constitutional Court are the Supreme Court and the Supreme Arbitration Court. The Supreme Court rules on civil, criminal, and administrative law, and the Supreme Arbitration Court handles economic suits.

The government is responsible to the president, and the executive branch is considerably more powerful than the other two branches. To some extent, presidential decrees can take the place of laws, thereby evading legislative scrutiny. Furthermore, the legislature has only limited rights to investigate government activity. Nevertheless, the legislature can reject the budget, draft legislation, publicize government errors and malpractice, and, at the price of its own dissolution and new parliamentary elections, bring down the government by repeated votes of no confidence.

A new constitution, ratified by referendum in December 1993, greatly increased the power of the presidency, it also established basic democratic guidelines, such as fixed terms of office, electoral procedures, and universal suffrage for all citizens aged 18 or older. The constitution also guarantees civil rights and the rule of law.

Since the late 1980s Russia has changed from a single-party, totalitarian state led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) to a multiparty democracy. The CPSU has been replaced by a number of political groups, factions, movements, and parties that span a wide political spectrum, from monarchists to communists. The parties range in size from a few members to more than half a million members. Some of the smaller political groups have lasted only a brief time. Alliances between groups are generally unstable, and coalitions shift frequently. Individual personalities influence political formations to a large degree, and the political agendas of many parties are vague and poorly documented.

Russia’s political parties can be divided into four general categories: communist parties; Russian nationalist parties; reformist, or pro-market democratic parties; and centrist and special interest parties. In early 1996 the major groups were the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, led by Gennady Zyuganov, which emerged from the legislative elections of December 1995 with the largest representation in parliament; the ultranationalist Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky; and the Agrarian Party, which is dominated by supporters of the collective farms system inherited from the Soviet era.

Legislative elections were held in the Russian Federation on December 7, 2003. At stake were the 450 seats in the State Duma (Gosudarstvennaya Duma), the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia.

As expected, the United Russia pro-Vladimir Putin party won the largest number of votes (38%) and seats, reducing most other parties to minor status. Even the formal figure of 221 seats for United Russia is an underestimate, because most of the minor party and "independent" members are in fact clients or supporters of President Putin. The elections have thus given Putin complete control of the legislature.

Of the other parties, the Communist Party (12.8%) is still the largest, though much reduced in strength. Liberal Democratic Party (11.7 %) came in third and improved its position by a few delegates. The liberal Yabloko (4.4 %) party and the liberal-conservative Union of Right Forces (SPS) (4 %) lost most of its seats. The only other significant party is socialist Homeland Union (Rodina)(9.2 %).

Like any other nation the Russians are famous for their own peculiar customs and traditions kept through the centuries.

Peter the Great, an outstanding Russian monarch, introduced many changes to the life of Russia and the Russian calendar. For instance, he brought in European chronology in Russia, which started with the birth of Christ.

The New Year is first on the calendar and in popularity. Many celebrate it twice, on January 1 and 14, which corresponds to January 1 in the Julian calendar used in Russia before 1918.

Church holidays have been recently reborn. Christmas, one of the main

Christian holidays in Russia, is celebrated on the 7th of January

in compliance with the Russian Orthodox calendar. The festive and merry days of Christmas are called Christmas-tide in Russia. There is no any other holiday celebrated in compliance with so many traditions, ceremonies, etc.

One of the ceremonies is called "Kolyadki". The ceremony

includes wishing of wealth and happiness to everybody. During

the ceremony a snow-lady is made with a carrot nose, eyes of prunes and teeth of green beans.

Lady Kolyada comes to the holiday to congratulate people and enjoy merry games and fun. Lady Kolyada is accompanied by some people bearing stars. They sing and dance in a ring on the snow with fired torches and push the festive wheel.

At the end of winter Shrovetide (a pancake week) comes. In Russia Pancake week is called "Maslyanitsa". Shrovetide is an ancient festival dating from pagan times. The Christian historians say that those were really "mad" days in the past. People wore funny masks and costumes, sometimes, men wore women's clothing and vice versa. Such masquerade anticipated a merry festival, when delicious food and a lot of wine were consumed. At first it was a festival that celebrated the arrival of spring and the start of work on the land. It included many rituals ( burning a man of straw symbolizing winter, lighting fires, leaving festival food on the ancestors ' graves) and feasts, the main food at which were ‘bliny’ (pancakes and crepes). The feast fighting was one more great fun that helped to get warm on cold winter days. Later, the Orthodox Church included Shrovetide among its festivals. Shrovetide has lost its ritual significance and has become a symbolic festival of saying good-bye to winter and welcoming spring. At present special performances are held during Pancake week. Throughout the whole week people cook pancakes. Each day of this week has its name: Monday – ‘The Greeting’, Tuesday – ‘Zaigryshi’ (entertainment day), Wednesday – ‘The Sweet Tooth’s Day’, Thursday – ‘The Lavish Day’, Friday – ‘Good Mother’s Evenings’, Saturday – ‘Good Daughter’s Parties’. Sunday is the last day of the Pancake week, and it is a culmination of the holiday. In ancient times the Scarecrow (Maslenitsa Dummy) was burned in fire and its ashes would be swept across the fields ‘for a heavy crop’. Sunday is known as ‘Sunday of Forgiveness’.

Easter (in Russian "Paskha") is celebrated in all Christian countries and in Russia as well. In Russia it follows a 7-week Lent. Special round-shaped sweet breads (Easter cakes) are baked. Moreover, eggs are painted in different bright colours. The coloured egg, most often red, is the main symbol of Russian Easter. It symbolizes eternal life, birth and perpetual renewal.

The next Sunday, which comes right after Easter, is called the Red Hill holiday. This day is considered the best for wedding ceremonies.

The folk holiday called Troitsa (Green Yule-tide, or Whitsunday) is also celebrated in Russia. In old times houses were decorated with green branches. Young birch-trees were covered with girlish clothes. People sang songs and danced round the birch-trees. The garlands made of birch branches and flowers were put into water for fortune telling.

Traditionally, Russians love to celebrate. No wonder Russia has a huge variety of different holidays, some of which are very publicly and widely celebrated.

Many people are surprised to know how many holidays Russians have to celebrate! Don’t worry - it is an individual choice whether to celebrate all or only some of them. If you don’t want – you don’t celebrate. Just do not stay with those who are celebrating — it’s catching! Russian culture combines different religious traditions, including Roman Catholic, Orthodox and pagan, which are reflected in the amazing sequence of the holidays. Visit Russia and see this perfect combination yourself!

1. ___ There are no special customs and traditions in Russia.

2. ___ It was Peter the Great who introduced a lot of changes to the life of Russia and the Russian calendar.

3. ___ "Kolyadki" is one of the ceremonies which includes making a snow-lady with an ugly face without a nose, with green eyes and black teeth.

4. ___ Shrovetide is an ancient festival dating from pagan times.

5. ___ Shrovetide has lost its ritual significance and has become a symbolic festival of saying good-bye to winter and welcoming spring.

6. ___ Easter is not celebrated in Christian countries. It is celebrated only in Russia.

7. ___ A pan-cake symbolizes eternal life, birth, and perpetual renewal.

8. ___ The next Sunday, which comes right after Easter is called the Green Hill holiday.

9. ___ On the folk holiday called Troitsa houses were decorated with green branches and young birch-trees were covered with girlish clothes.

10. ___ Russian culture combines different religious traditions, including Roman Catholic, Orthodox and pagan.

British stereotypes of Americans: Americans are illiterate, have no culture, are immodest and gauche, have a throw away culture (e.g. automobiles) and everything has a price. Churchill called Americans a nation of shopkeepers. Napoleon said the same of the English, L'angleterre est une nation de boutiquiers. When Clive James visited California in the late 1970s, he reported that restaurants look like car washes, car washes look like art galleries, art galleries look like war memorials, war memorials look like fire stations, fire stations look like churches, and churches look like restaurants.

Americans' stereotypes of themselves: they think they are culture-free, think other countries don’t like them, think they are the world (international news are virtually absent from major news broadcasts and newspapers unless American interests are involved), and are born to shop (for trinkets to show off to each other).

Americans are patriotic, direct and open in conversation, globally naïve, experts at marketing, welcome you into their stores, have more shopping malls, and don’t have a class structure.

American stereotypes of the British: they are bad lovers, terrible cooks, snotty, pompous, insular, cold, traditional, do things in their own fashion, make the best ‘bad guys’ in movies, and speak English correctly. One American at an English college complained, ‘The English girls never got my jokes, the Brussels sprouts were gray, the drizzle was relentless, and the toilet paper was waxy’.

British stereotypes of themselves: none.

The British despise their own country, pity anyone not British, despise foreigners, talk to themselves (but only after years of acquaintance—Punch Magazine), have a class structure (upper middle class, middle class, and lower middle class), and look upon you as you enter their shops as a trespasser.

MYTH: Life is easy in the United States.

MYTH: America is “the land of the free,” so I can do whatever I want there.

MYTH: Americans are racists. /Americans are tolerant.

MYTH: The United States is a classless society.

MYTH: Americans are rude and loud.

MYTH: All Americans are rich and drive fast cars.

MYTH: American students are less prepared academically than students from my country.

MYTH: American professors are casual, sometimes even asking students to address them by their first names.

MYTH: American students use illegal drugs.

· National stereotypes are dangerous because they may provoke racial prejudice.

· Stereotypes contain a certain amount of truth.

· There is no such thing as national character and therefore the idea of national stereotypes is rubbish.

· The reason stereotypes exist is because people are afraid of diversity, change, and what is unknown. They prefer to cling to simple classifications, which maintain an old, familiar and established order.

· Stereotypes are simply harmless sorts of jokes we tell about other nationalities or groups of people.

1.

A: What’s your favourite holiday?

B: Well, that depends. I like (1) ____ that (2) _____ me a long vacation (3) _____ school.

(1) a. any b. such c. this

(2) a. does b. makes c. gives

(3) a. from b. to c. since

A: The (4) _______ break is in summer, but that doesn’t (5) ___________ because it’s not for a holiday. But really, which holiday do you (6) ______?

(4) a. longer b. longest c. lonely

(5) a. number b. count c. add

(6) a. like best b. best like c. most best like

B: I (5) _______ Easter is my favourite, because I really like doing the Easter egg (6) _______. My (7) _______ family makes Easter eggs and hides (8) ________, then (9) _______ the children look _______(10) them.

(5) a. prefer b. wonder c. guess

(6) a. look b. hunt c. find

(7) a. every b. all c. whole

(8) a. this b. these c. them

(9) a. entire b. all c. many

(10) a. for b. at c. to

A: That sounds fun. (11) ______ I prefer New Year’s Eve.

(11) a. Also b. But c. True

B: That’s’ a strange (12) __________!

(12) a. choice b. choose c. choosing

A: I know but I love staying (13) _______ late and watching one year (14) _____ into the (15)___________. And I don’t (16) __________ drinking champagne.

(13) a. up b. very c. high

(14) a. travel b. make c. change

(15) a. forward b. next c. further

(16) a. prefer b. mind c. care

2.

A: Where are you going (1) ______ Christmas (2) _______?

(1) a. in b. during c. time of

(2) a. day b. situation c. break

B: (3) ___a complicated question. My mother wants (4) __________ to Austria, but my father (5)_____ Italy. My brother (6)__________ to ski, so (7)__________ on my mother’s side. My sister is crazy about museums – she really (8)___ them. (9)_____ she (10)____ my father.

(3) a. It’s b. this c. so

(4) a. going b. go c. to go

(5) a. prefers b. liking c. very more

(6) a. is loving b. love c. loves

(7) a. he was b. he’s c. his

(8) a. do love b. loves c. hates

(9) a. Obviously b. Perfectly c. Nobody

(10) a. supporting b. support c. supports

A: So really it’s up to you (11) __________.

(11) a. to decide b. deciding c. decide

B: Yes. (12) ______considering the situation (13) ________. (14)__________ my mother (15) __________better choices. But my father is a (16) ________ person to travel (17) ____________.

(12) a. I will b. I’m c. I

(13) a. carelessly b. careful c. carefully

(14) a. Usually b. Normal c. Every

(15) a. making b. makes c. make

(16) a. more good b. gooder c. better

(17) a. to b. with c. for

A: It’s none of my business, but I (18) ____ think your problem is very big.

(18) a. don’t b. didn’t c. aren’t

Citations about the nation and patriotism:

1. The country of every man is that one where he lives best. (Aristophanes)

2. I … do not call the sod under my feet my country. But language, religion, laws, government, blood – identity of these makes men of one country. (Samuel Taylor Coleridge)

3. [Education is] something which makes a people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but impossible to enslave. (Lord Brougham)

4. [Government] is to have one party govern the other party watch. (Thomas Reed)

5. [A nation is] a group of men who speak one language and read the same newspapers. (Friedrich W. Nietzsche)

6. [A nation is] two classes – the nations in which the government fears the people, and the nations in which the people fear the government. (Amos R.Pinchot)

7. [Patriotism is] your conviction that this country is superior to all other countries because you were born in it. (George Bernard Shaw)

8. [Patriotism is] the passion of fools and the most foolish of passions. (Arthur Schopenhauer)

9. [Patriotism is] a bad and harmful feeling … a stupid doctrine. (Leo Tolstoy)

10. [Patriotism is] our country, right or wrong. When right, to be kept right; when wrong, to be put right. (Carl Schurz)

11. [Patriotism is] one person’s meat is another person’s poison. (Proverb)

WRITING

Name of celebration, traditional food,

meaning of name, traditional dances,

history, date, music and songs,

preparation for celebration, traditional clothes,

gift giving, typical activities

The New Year holiday is the most common celebration around the world. Every culture has interesting New Year’s tradition. In many countries, custom focus on good luck for the new year and saying good-bye to the past. In Peru and many South American country, people put on yellow underwear. No one knows where the custom comes from. However, yellow has been the colour of good luck for many generations. Second Peruvian tradition is to eat twelve grape at midnight. The grapes represent the twelve month of the year. Some people say you must eat grape under table or without chewing them. If you want to take trip in the new year, you must run around the block with packed suitcase. Another interesting custom is to throw away old calendar. In fact, if you are in Lima on December 31, at noon you will see calendar flying out of the windows!

Новый год (1 января)

Новый год в Англии отмечают без подарков и не обязательно в кругу семьи. Традиционных блюд для этого торжества нет. Обычно английские хозяйки готовят яблочный пирог. В Шотландии встреча Нового года считается более важным праздником, чем Рождество. Новый год по-шотландски – это, в первую очередь, генеральная уборка. Ни одно дело не должно остаться незавершенным. С первым ударом часов глава дома распахивает дверь и держит ее до последнего удара, так он выпускает старый год из дома, а новый впускает.

Также в Шотландии считается, что первый человек, который зайдет в дом после наступления Нового года, значительно повлияет на финансовое состояние. В зависимости от региона, удачу приносит светловолосый или темноволосый чужак. В Англии удачу приносит человек, принесший в дом кусок угля и стакан чистой воды.

1 января, с началом нового года, британцы всегда принимают какие–то важные решения, которые должны улучшить их жизнь (бросить курить, заняться спортом и другие).

День святого Валентина (14 февраля)

В Англии и Шотландии день Святого Валентина сопровождается тайным вручением подарков и открыток – "валентинок". В старину вечером 13 февраля богатые и бедные воздыхатели клали свои дары на ступеньки заветной двери, звонили и убегали. Кстати, поздравительная открытка как таковая появилась именно в связи с днем Валентина, и родина ее - Англия. Первым открытку отправил Чарльз, Герцог Орлеанский (Duke of Orleans). Полагают, что традицию дарить в день Валентина красные розы положил Людовик XVIII, именно красные розы он преподнес в этот день Марии-Антуанетте (Marie Antoinette).

В последнее время 14-го февраля стало популярным не только посылать открытки, но и дарить своим любимым сладости в виде сердечек, мягкие игрушки, особенно столь популярных в Британии медвежат Teddy.

Хеллоуин (31 октября)

Хеллоуин – вечер перед Днем всех святых. Истоки этот противоречивый праздник берет из кельтской культуры. Хэллоуин имел огромное значение, в это время с помощью ритуалов прощались со старым, плохим, ненужным и встречали новое. Древние англичане в дар богам природы приносили яблоки, осенние овощи, цветы, оставляли их под деревьями или зарывали в землю с просьбой о помощи и поддержке. Ночью 31 октября было принято выставлять тарелку с фруктами на улицу - для мертвых душ, чтобы те могли прийти на помощь живым.

Сейчас праздник возвращается в Европу. Дети наряжаются в костюмы чудовищ и ходят по соседским домам, требуя сладостей. Этот обычай назван trick-or-treat - "угости, а то напакощу". Также устраивают маскарады и выставляют в окно полую тыкву с вырезанными глазами и ртом и свечкой внутри, чтобы отпугнуть духов. Кстати тыква – изобретение американцев. А до этого американского изобретения в Ирландии и Шотландии страшные рожи, в которые потом вставляли свечки, вырезали из реп и картофелин, в Англии - из свеклы.

Рождество (24-25 декабря)

Жители Англии и Уэльса считают Рождество более важным праздником, чем Новый год. На рождественский вечер 25 декабря собирается, как правило, вся семья. Рождественский обед включает такие традиционные блюда как фаршированная индейка у англичан или жареный гусь в Уэльсе и Ирландии.

Подарки британцы открывают утром 25 декабря, обязательно в присутствии всей семьи. Кстати обычай вешать носки для подарков пришел из Англии. Есть легенда о том, что Санта Клаус (Santa Claus) однажды уронил несколько золотых монет, когда спускался вниз по дымоходу. Монеты попали в носок, повешенный для просушки. С тех пор дети вешают носки на камин в надежде найти их полными подарков. Письма Санте не отправляют по почте, а сжигают. В Британии считается, что Санта Клаус читает пожелания детей по дыму.

Дом британцы украшают хвойными ветками и лесными ягодами. Над головой, где-нибудь в дверном проеме, вывешиваются веточки омелы. Если под ними встретились мужчина и женщина, то по традиции они обязательно должны поцеловаться.

Рождественскую ель в Англии стали украшать после 1841 года, когда принц Альберт (Albert) приказал принести и украсить елку в Виндзорском (Windsor Castle) замке для его жены Виктории (Victoria) и их детей. А с XIX в. вошло в обычай обмениваться поздравительными открытками. В 1843 году англичанин Хорслей (Horsley) нарисовал первую рождественскую открытку. 1000 экземпляров открытки были тогда проданы в Лондоне.

PART II. THE PLACE I LIVE IN

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