Phraseological unit is a stable word group (set-phrase) characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning.

The term idiom is a kind of figurative speech most commonly found in conversation or informal writing. The word idiom comes from the Greek word idios, which means “one’s own”. Idioms are generally specific to geographical regions, time periods, or cultures. Their meanings are usually not literal (the same as their stated meanings). The term used both in Russia and abroad is mostly applied to phraseological units with completely transferred meaning (the meaning of the whole unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of the components).

e.g. to skate on thin ice, to be (turn) thumbs down (up) on,

a crow in borrowed plums, through thick and thin,

tooth and nail

Seek no substitution or you will have:

to carry coal to Manchester (instead of Newcastle) = R: ездить в Харьков со своим самоваром (instead of в Тулу) – заниматься бесполезным делом.

In translation use synonyms, avoid equivalents having the local colour.

In phraseological units even grammar cannot be varied:

e.g. to find fault with somebody (not fault s)

a skeleton in the cupboard

to keep one’s eye peeled

from head to foot (not feet)

Only in fiction some variations of idioms are possibly created for stylistic purposes:

e.g. She built for herself a most magnificent castle in the air of which she was the mistress.

Factor said in effect: “I will swallow all the camels you have said about me, but I strain at this gnat.

In a free word combination changes are possible:

e.g. The big cargo ship carries coal to Liverpool.

The big ship carries a large cargo of coal to the port of Liverpool.

How to distinguish free word groups from phraseological units? This is the most discussed and controversial question in the field of phraseology. The task is complicated by the existence of a great number of marginal cases, the so-called semi-fixed or semi-free collocations, also called non-phraseological units which share with phraseological units their structural stability but lack their semantic unity and figurativeness.

e.g. to go to school, to go by car, to commit suicide,

to have a bee in one’s bonnet (phraseological unit) ¹ He was distracted by a bee buzzing in his bonnet (free word group)

Phraseological units can be classified into 3 groups:

I. Phraseological Units (устойчивые единства)

They are partially motivated and perceived through metaphoric meaning of the whole unit. They include generic names, proverbs, allusions, sayings. For better translation it is possible to subdivide them into:

a) units having Russian counterparts with the same image and meanings traced to the same prototype: the Bible, myths, Shakespeare, etc.

e.g. to earn one’s bread in the sweat of one’s face

the apple of discord lion’s share

to one’s heart content to shed crocodile tears

b) units having the same meaning but expressed through a different image:

e.g. to sink through the floor

between the devil and the deep blue sea

whip-and-carrot policy

to paint oneself into a corner

c) units having no equivalents in Russian. Such as winged words, catch phrases, realia, vogue phrases, etc.

e.g. tower of ivory, bullet catcher, second to none, to beat the air, pow-vow, the Father of the country. Little pitcher has long ears.

d) units having one-word equivalent in Russian:

e.g. to hang fire to ring a bell

to shake a leg lock, stock and barrel

happy-go-lucky

II. Phraseological Fusions (сращения)

They are completely non-motivated word groups and they are rendered by descriptive translation (interpreting):

e.g. to show the white feather

to dine with Duke Humphrey

to pull one’s leg

III. Phraseological Collocations (устойчивые сочетания)

They are motivated word groups and they are translated by corresponding equivalents in the TL.

e.g. to pay attention to (свое)

to draw somebody’s attention (чье-то)

to throw a glance

to take one’s temperature

Some esteem such units as decorations, others – as aids to brevity. If they are used, it is inexcusable to use them incorrectly. “The domain of allusions is full of traps” (Fowler).

Dictionaries to help:

1. А.В. Кунин «Англо-русский фразеологический словарь»

2. С.С. Кузьмин «Русско - английский фразеологический словарь»

3. В.В.Гуревич «Фразеологический русско-английский словарь»

4. Brian Locket “Beyond the Dictionary”

Further reading and exercises:

1. Т.А.Козакова: Part 2, Chapter 4, pp. 127-153.
2. A.L.Koralova: pp. 93-96, ex. 1,2,3.
3. Divide the following phrases into 2 groups: free word combinations and phraseological units. Translate them:

to lose a little white feather, tit for tat, the cat on the cupboard, a big house, the Big Five, to dance around the room, red tape, black suit, black sheep, to beat around the bush, to smell a flower, to smell a rat, to pass through a door, to open wide, best man, to break the ice, to sit on a fence, to fall in love, first night, to grin like a Cheshire cat, to be from Missouri, Dutch comfort, to be on firm ground, out of the blue, bells and whistles, to keep low profile, a mare’s nest, to leave no stone unturned.

1. Find the examples of phraseological units derived from different sources. Translate the following:

a) the Bible: filthy lucre, to cast pearls before swine, a wolf in sheepish clothing;

b) Shakespearisms: a fool’s paradise, the green-eyed monster, to have an itching palm;

c) mythology: a Labor of Hercules, the Cask of Danaids, the Greek Gift;

d) history: baker’s dozen, the rob Peter to pay Paul, a peeping Tom, when queen Ann was alive, warts and all, blue stocking;

e) cultural (with national colouring): Dutch bargain / courage / uncle / defence / concert / feast, to go Dutch;

f) Latin: tabula rasa, persona grata, a propos, urbi et orbi, ab ovo, alter ego;

Veni., vidi, vici. Memento mori.

Gaudeamus igitur, juvenus dum sumus.

g) French: joie de vivre, coup de grace, faux pas, coup d’etat, laissez-faire, prêt a porter, déjà vu, nouveaux rich, carte blanche.

h) quotations: Advice is cheap. To be or not to be. All is well that ends well. Wonder lasts but 9 days. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. Better safe than sorry.

i) titles of books: Cakes and Ale. The Golden Calf. The Underdog. Sound and Fury. Трудно быть богом. Так жить нельзя.

j) titles of films: Barfly. Trainspotting. Double Trouble. Nobody’s Fool. Die Hard. The Devil’s Advocate. Flatliners. Место встречи изменить нельзя.

k) slang: wrong number, eager beaver, Boob tube, dead beat, long hair, lost time, whiz kid, kick it.

1. Match the following idiomatic expressions with their meanings, translate them into Russian:

1. to blow whistle on somebody a)a generous, good person
2. keep your shirt on b) sleep
3. left holding the bag c) accomplishment
4. catch some Zs d) remain calm
5. burn the candle on both ends e) cheat someone
6. feather in your cap f) alert or fast
7. on the wrong side of the tracks g) in trouble
8. in the doghouse h) to work hard
9. quick on the draw i) from a poor part of town
10. take someone to the cleaner’s j)to be left with the blame
11. heart of gold k) to inform on somebody
12. one-arm bandit l) a slot machine

1. Translate some winged phrases from Russian:

Достаньте любыми средствами!

Восток – дело тонкое.

Все схвачено … и задушено.

Врубиться (въехать) в тему.

Дорогого стоит.

За успех безнадежного дела!

Знаковая фигура.

Любви все возрасты покорны.

Мало не покажется.

Не подарок.

Никогда и ничего не просите (Булгаков).

Ну, поехали!

Охота к перемене мест (Пушкин).

Процесс пошел (Горбачев).

Ребята, давайте жить дружно.

Это не бином Ньютона (Булгаков).

Сила есть, ума, не надо.

Спасение утопающих – дело рук самих утопающих.

Театр одного актера.

(П.Палажченко «Мой несистематический словарь»).

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