Grammar focus

?9. Write a letter to your friend describing Greater London. Make an ample use of the suggested phrases, conveying probability, advisability, possibility, uncertainty, doubt, wish etc.

I wish I	It looks as if	It is possible that
It is advisable that	The plan is that	Let’s
It’s odd that	Smb fears that/lest	It is curious that

— 10. Work with a partner. Discuss the main sections of Central London.

?11. Make notes of 10 more facts about present-day London.

HISTORY OF LONDON

— Discuss these questions in pairs:

· How old is London?

· Who built London?

· What does London's name mean?

& 2. Read the text about the history of London; make sure you study the language of the text to be competent in further exercises and discussions. Be ready to give full answers to the questions below.

London is the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. London traces its history back nearly 2,000 years. London is one of the largest cities in the world, with about 7 million people.

London began about A.D. 43, when armies of the Roman Empire started to conquer Brit­ain. The Romans built a seaport on the Thames /Dark/ near present-day London Bridge. The Ro­mans called the port Londinium /from Celtic "londin" - wild, bold/.

By the 200's, the Romans had built a wall around London, which formed London's boundaries for hundreds of years. In 410 the Roman troops in Britain were called home. The na­tive Britons who had moved to London kept the settlement alive as a trading center.

After the Romans left, seafaring Germanic tribes repeatedly attacked London. The two powerful tribes, the Angles and Saxons, divided England into separate kingdoms. The Saxons controlled London. The Saxon king Edward the Confessor built a palace and rebuilt a church about two miles southwest of London. It became the start of the City of Westminster. The church became Westminster Abbey.

In 1066, William the Conqueror was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. William granted Londoners self -government. He built a castle, called the White Tower, to impress them with his authority and power. The White tower today forms the central part of the Tower of London.

About 1100, work began on Old St. Paul's Cathedral to replace a church destroyed by fire. It was finished 200 years later.

In 1209, London Bridge became the first stone bridge across the Thames. It replaced a wooden bridge of Roman times.

London's craft and trade guilds began to develop. Guild members elected London's first mayor in the 1190's. London had about 50,000 people and its mayor was now called the Lord Mayor.

London grew rapidly. Under King Henry VIII nobles built estates outside London's walls. The West End thus began to develop. The king owned six palaces in the London area, including the Palace of Westminster. In 1547 Henry VIII died, the palace of Westminster became the meeting place of Parliament.

London developed into a world-trading center under Queen Elizabeth I. The Royal Stock Exchange was completed in 1571. England's first theaters opened in London's suburbs. The thea­tres attracted such noisy crowds that they were prohibited inside London's walls. One of the most popular theaters was the Globe, across London Bridge. William Shakespeare began to present his plays at the Globe about 1599.

War, plague and fire struck London in the 17th century. A struggle for power between King Charles I and Parliament resulted in civil war in 1642. London sided with Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell and other Puritans. The Puritans opposed the king, the Church of England and the luxurious life of the nobility. The Puritans beheaded the king in 1649.

London grew less prosperous under Puritan rule. The Puritans made themselves unpopular by closing the theatres. When Parliament restored the monarchy in 1660, most Londoners wel­comed the new king, Charles II (l630-85).

The Great Plague, a terrible epidemic broke in London in 1665. The disease was spread by fleas from infected rats and had taken about 100,000 lives.

On September 2, 1666, the Great Fire of London broke. Most of the City lay in ashes. The losses included St. Paul's Cathedral, more than 80 churches and about 13,000 houses. The fire was brought under control five days later and caused no known death.

Londoners rebuilt the City with brick and stone. The great architect of the new city was Sir Christopher Wren. London's business soon recovered from losses. A new Royal Exchange opened in 1675. Lloyd's insurance company started in the coffee house of Edward Lloyd (1648-1712) in 1686. Coffee houses on Fleet Street were a chief source of news, and so London's news­paper industry grew up in this area.

London's main role in the Industrial Revolution was to develop markets for the factory-produced goods. The merchants and the bankers made enormous fortunes. The West End became famous for its fashionable life. The workers lived in slums in the East End.

In the 1840's a ring of railroad stations went up around central London. The first station, Euston Station, opened in 1846. London's subway system, which was the first in the world, started in 1863.

A detail from John Rocque's 1746 map of London

During WWI German airships dropped a few bombs on London. In 1940, Germany began an all-out attack on Britain. London became the chief target of the attack. The blitz lasted from September 1940 to May 1941. German planes dropped tons of bombs on the built-up area. The City and the East End were especially hard-hit. The air attacks on London continued throughout the war. Much of London lay in ruins. Bombs had destroyed 80% of London's houses.

In the 1960's, skyscrapers began to appear in central London. The 26-story Shell Center opened in 1962. In 1965, the 189-meter Post Office Tower became the tallest structure in Britain.

The London Government Act replaced the County of London with Greater London. It also divided Greater London into 32 boroughs.

The problems of London include air pollution, housing shortage, and traffic jams. But London has had more success than most other cities in solving its problems.

London was long noted for its smogs. Terrible smog in 1952 killed about 4000 Londoners. In 1956 Parliament passed a Clean Air Act and by the 1970's, London was noted for its clean air.

The new towns outside the Green Belt have helped ease a housing shortage in London. Housing projects have cleared out many slums and provided low-cost housing for many families.

To relieve some of the traffic problems, the government built a road that completely cir­cles London. Motorway 25(M 25) opened in 1986.

1. Did London develop into a world-trading center under Queen Elizabeth I?

2. When was the Royal Stock Exchange completed?

3. Where did England's first theaters open?

4. Why were the theatres prohibited inside London's walls?

5. What was the Globe?

6. When did William Shakespeare begin to present his plays at the Globe?

7. What struck London in the 17th century?

8. What was the result of the struggle between King Charles I and Parliament?

9. Did London side with Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell, or King?

10. Did the Puritans oppose the luxurious life of the nobility?

11. Who beheaded the king in 1649?

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