Text-normative equivalence.

Text-normative equivalence is related to text types, with texts behaving in different ways.

33Pragmatic equivalence.!

Words in language are related to certain referents which they designate and to other words of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. These relationships are called semantic and syntactic, respectively. Words are also related to the people who use them. To the users of the language its words are not just indifferent, unemotional labels of objects or ideas. The people develop a certain attitude to the words they use. Some of the words acquire definite implications, they evoke a positive or negative response, they are associated with certain theories, beliefs, likes or dislikes. There are “noble” words like “ honour, dignity, freedom “, etc. and “low” words like “infamy, cowardice, betrayal”. Words can be nice or ugly, attractive or repulsive. Such relationships between the word and its users are called “pragmatic”.

The pragmatic implications of a word are an important part of its meaning that produces a certain effect upon the Receptor. Of even greater significance is the pragmatic aspect of speech units. Every act of speech communication is meant for a certain Receptor, it is aimed at producing a certain effect upon him. In this respect any communication is an exercise in pragmatics.

Since the pragmatic effect plays such an important part in communication, its preservation in translation is the primary concern of the translator, though it is by no means an easy task. The pragmatic aspect of translation involves a number of difficult problems.

To begin with, the pragmatics of the original text cannot be as a rule directly reproduced in translation but often require important changes in the transmitted message. Correlated words in different languages may produce dissimilar effect upon the users. An “ambition” in English is just the name of a quality which may evoke any kind of response — positive, negative or neutral. Its Russian counterpart «амбиция» is definitely not a nice word. Thus, the phrase ‘The voters put an end to the general’s political ambitions” can be translated as «Избирателиположиликонецполитическимамбициямгенерала», retaining the negative implication of the original, but if the implication were positive the translator would not make use of the derogatory term. The sentence ‘The boy’s ambition was to become a pilot” will be translated as «Мечтоймальчикабылостатьлетчиком».

Such words as “idealism” or “nationalism” often have a positive effect in the English text and are rendered into Russian not as «идеализм» or «национализм» but as «служениеидеалам, бескорыстие» and «национальноесамосознание, национальныеинтересы», respectively.

When we consider not just separate words but a phrase or number of phrases in a text, the problem becomes more complicated. The communicative effect of a speech unit does not depend on the meaning of its components alone, but involves considerations of the situational context and the previous experience. A report that John has run a hundred metres in 9 seconds will pass unnoticed by some people and create a sensation with others who happen to know that it is a wonderful record-breaking achievement.

34Formal-aesthetic equivalence.!

35Analysis of equivalence.!

In systemic functional linguistics, the term tenor refers to the participants in a discourse, their relationships to each other, and their purposes.

In examining how context affects language use, linguists refer to the context-specific variety of language as a register. The three aspects of the context are known as field, tenor and mode. Field refers to the subject matter or content being discussed. Mode refers to the channel (such as writing, or video-conference) of the communication. By understanding these three variables, the kind of language likely to be used in a particular setting can be predicted — and, Michael Halliday suggests, this is exactly what we do, unconsciously, as language users.^[1]

In analysing the parts of a metaphor, "tenor" has another meaning, unrelated to the meaning above. According to I. A. Richards, the two parts of a metaphor are the tenor and vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are derived. Thus, they are broadly equivalent to the notions of target and source domains in conceptual metaphor theory.

How can we characterize language use? One way is to look at the relationship between language forms and the features of the context. The descriptive categories we use are Field, Tenor, and Mode. Based on Halliday's theory of language variation, we can describe web materials. Here is a summary of the descriptive categories to be used:

Field
Field refers to the subject matter or topic. Field answers the question: "What is happening?" "What is the activity?" "What is the text/multimedia about?"
We examine a language/literacy project on the web to find out its content and aims. The description of the content should be clear and detailed enough to give readers a sense that they have explored the site themselves. At this juncture we can begin to suggest how the content affects the vocabulary used. Finally, we address the question, what difference does the web make in the development of the content of the project? That is, what advantage does this environment have over more traditional contexts for learning this subject matter?

Tenor
Tenor refers to the roles of the participants in an interaction. Tenor answers the question: "Who are participating and what is their relative status or power?"
Examining the web site, we describe how learners interact with the material (who is in control?), or how students interact with one another and with teachers or others who are collaborating on the web. We should offer some insight into the relative status among any and all the participants. Does the designer control the action? Does the user have some agency in the activity? In short, how interactive is the site? And, how is the technology shaping or changing participation structures for learning?

Mode
Mode refers to the channel of communication. Mode answers the questions: "What is the language doing?"
Examining the material once more, we look more closely at the language itself. We describe the code (language) used-e.g., English, Spanish, sign language, or mixed codes. We describe the means (sometimes called the channel of communication): spoken, written, graphics/images, and/or a combination of these semiotic systems. We discuss the function of each system and point out which predominates. We ask, is the communication exchange different from other types of human interaction? What features in these forms of communication differ from others?

These three descriptive categories should lead us to a final evaluative comment about the pedagogical effectiveness of the material examined. Are there opportunities for users to be active learners? Does the material lend itself to achieving the stated goals? Does computer support enhance the achievement of these goals?

36The category of field.!

37The category of tenor.!

38The category of mode.!

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