Subordinate phrases

Subordinate phrases may be best enumerated when we arrange them according to their leading member: noun phrases, adjectival phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, pronominal phrases (pronominal phrases are most suitably included in the noun or adjective groups to which they are evident parallels). As has been pointed out, their immediate constituents are head word and modifier (adjunct). The term head word (head) means the word that is modified.

Noun-Phrases

In terms of position of the attributive adjunct, noun-phrases may be classified into; 1) phrases with preposed modifier; 2) phrases with postposed modifier.

Phrases with Preposed Modifier

In noun-phrases with preposed modifiers we generally find adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles, gerunds and nouns in the possessive case. Here belongs also premodification of nouns by nouns (so-called noun-adjunct-groups).

With his own hands he put flowers about his little house-boat and equipped the punt in which, after lunch, he proposed to take them on the river. (Galsworthy)

Many a time had he tried to think that in old days of thwarted merrier life; and he always failed. (Galsworthy)

Val had just changed out of riding clothes and was on his way to the fire — a bookmaker's in Cornmarket. (Galsworthy)

Jolly Forsyte was strolling down High Street, Oxford, on a November afternoon. (Galsworthy)

After a few morning consultations, with the pleasant prospect of no surgery in the evening Andrew went on his round. (Cronin)

And beneath it lay the family's Christmas treat — three small oranges, (Cronin)

A preposed determinant may be extended only by an adverb, e. g.:

That was a typically French way to furnish a room. '

In premodification of nouns by nouns the noun-adjunct may be extended by words of different parts of speech, e. g.: long playing micro-groove full frequency range recording.

The -s is appended to a group of words if it forms a sense-unit, e. g.: the man of property's daughter, Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, the King of Denmark's court.

The division into immediate constituents in cases like the man of

property's daughter is not the man || of property's, but the man of property's.

Postposition of adjectives occurs in some fixed phrases, e. g.:

mother dear the university proper

the president elect a battle royal

time immemorial the first person singular

Postpositive position is often natural for adjectival units which themselves contain postpositive modifiers of their own and even for some which contain only postpositive modifiers

applicants desirous of personal interviews a wall six feet high rooms large enough

Noun-Adjunct Groups

English nominals presented by N + N structures are one of the most striking features about the grammatical organisation of English.

Noun-adjunct groups consisting of "nounal modifier" plus "nominal head" result from different kind of transformational shifts. Premodification of nouns by nouns can signal a striking variety of meanings. The grammar of English nominalisations presents here a major point of linguistic interest.

In order to appreciate how very wide the variety of grammatical meaning in nominal compounds may be, consider the following miscellaneous examples:

world peace (= peace all over the world)

table lamp (= a lamp for tables)

sheep dog (= a dog which herds sheep)

prairie dog (= a dog which inhabits the

prairie)

silver box (= a box made of silver)

field worker (= a worker works in the field)

chair legs (= the legs of the chair)

night owl (= an owl which flies at night)

river sand (= sand from the river)

soap salesman (= the salesman sells soap)

school child (= the child goes to school)

Noun-groups of this type are fairly common and new specimens are constantly being formed.

Since nominal compounds usually consist of only two constituents and incorporate the most general grammatical relations in the language, there are unusually great opportunities for grammatical ambiguity in this kind of binary structures.

To make our point clear, we shall give a number of interesting ambiguities and variations in interpreting them.

Thus, for instance, in its ordinary use the noun-phrase snake poison

is interpreted to have the same structure as that of snake oil, snake track,

etc., і. e. it is derived from some expression like poison from a snake, or ultimately perhaps from some kernel-sentence such as: The snake gives poison. However it could also be interpreted to be the same in structure as snake venom, snakehead, snakeblood, etc., i. e. to be more like snake's poison or poison of a snake, say from some sentence as: The snake has the poison. ¹

But these do not exhaust the possibilities, though the latter two are probably the way the expression is commonly used, the first when meaning "poisonous substance made from snake venom".

Notice also the possible contrast among snake flesh, snake meat, and snake food: "flesh of a snake","meat from a snake", and "food for a snake". The formal characteristics within the structure of various noun-adjunct groups provide significant contrast to distinguish certain of the meaning that attach to «modifier» relation.

Noun-adjunct groups are often derived from already generated post-nominal participial or gerundive modifiers, e. g,:

The well yields oil

...well which yields oil...

...well yielding oil...

...oil-yielding well...

...oil well...

Observe the significant contrast in the following pairs of noun-adjunct groups:

a baby sister a mother country

a baby sitter a mother complex

a woman lawyer a toy cupboard

a woman hater a toy cupboard a candy cane a candy store

Each of these units contains a modifying noun and a head noun, and the modifying noun precedes its head. When the modifying noun has the essentially descriptive force of an adjective, the head noun normally has phrase stress. In a baby sister the sister is a baby, in a candy cane the cane is candy. When the modifying noun has relationship to its head, the modifying noun rather than the head normally has phrase stress. Thus in a baby sitter the sitter is not a baby but a sitter with babies, and in a candy store the store is not candy but sells candy. When it is used of a cupboard that is itself a toy, a toy cupboard has phrase stress on cupboard; when it is used of a cupboard which is not itself a toy but is used as a place for toys, the same sequence has phrase stress on toy.

The pattern of stress normally indicates the nature of the "modifier" relationship. Compare also the following:

growing children — growing pains

a living soul — living conditions the waiting mother — the waiting room

¹ See: R. B. Lees. The Grammar of English Nominalisations. 5th Ed. the Hague, 1968, p. 122.

Growing children are children that are growing, but growing pains are the pains of growing.

Instances are not few when the nominalised verb appears as head of the structure the transform may be generated directly from the genitive case or the of -phrase periphrasis, e. g.:

The population grows... population's growth... growth of the population... population growth

The deletion of a post-nominal modifier along with the preposition gives such derivations as, for instance:

The owl flies at night... owl which flies at night... owl flying at night... night owl

An attempt to tabulate the underlying grammatical relations observed in noun-adjunct groups will help to distinguish significant contrasts in their meaning:

1) Subject-predicate relations: graduate-student, class struggle, student failure, temperature change, weather change, blood pressure, etc.

Closely related to such nominals are formations like queen bee, mother earth, girl draftsman, lady journalist, man friend, woman author, woman scientist, woman writer, etc. where the relation between the two nouns is essentially different. Viewed in their combination, the two elements in such patterns are syntactically equal, each of the two nouns can function to name a person or thing denoted by a whole pattern. This is made abundantly clear by the simplest transformational analysis: the girl draftsman → the girl is a draftsman; the woman scientist → → the woman is a scientist.

2) Object relations:

a) body nourishment, coal production, chemistry student, carpet sweeper, health service, ink transfer, money economy, package delivery, product control, potato peeler, rug sale, safety feeling, truck driver, war talk, woman hater, etc.;

b) "with" -nominals (the modifying noun denotes instrumental relations), e. g.: acid treatment, eye view, oil painting, etc.;

c) the qualitative genitive or the of-phrase periphrasis, e. g.: child psychology, fellow feeling, mother wit, mother heart, science degree, etc. (Cf. Syn.: child psychology — child's psychology — the psychology of a child — childish psychology);

d) the of-phrase periphrasis (the modifying noun denotes the material of which a thing is made), e. g.:

brick house, gold watch, iron bridge, oak table, paper bag, rubber coat, silver box, stone wall, etc.

3) Adverbial relations of time: day shift, night shift, morning star, morning exercises, spring time, spring term, summer vacation, summer sunshine, September sun, winter vacation, winter afternoon, etc.

4) Adverbial relations of place: world peace, country air, chimney swallows, England tour, nursery door, river house, study window, ground water, etc.

5) Adverbial relations of comparison: button eyes, eagle eye, hawk nose, iron nerves, lost dog look, swallow dive, etc.

6) Adverbial relations of purpose: bath robe, export products, peace movement, resistance fighters, tooth brush, writing table, walking stick, etc.

It is important to remember that the modifying noun is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head.

The semantic relations which underlie such nominals present certain difficulties of analysis.

The meaning of the modifying noun is often signalled by the lexical meaning of the head word. Compare the following: river house, river margin, river sand; cotton dress, cotton production, cotton prices; war production, war talk, war years; oak leaves, oak tables; medicine smell, medicine bottle.

A clue concerning the meaning of the modifier may also be found in the grammatical nature of the noun modified. Thus, for instance, when the second element is a verbal noun made from an intransitive verb, the first element will often denote the doer of the action, e. g.: class struggle, student failure, etc. If the second element is a verbal noun made from a transitive verb (which is fairly common), the first element will generally denote the object of the action, e. g.: product control, production increase, safety feeling, rug sale, coal production, etc.

If the second element denotes a person or an animal, the first element may denote gender, e. g.: woman writer, man servant, bull elephant, cow elephant.

In cases when the lexical meaning of the words admits either interpretation without lexico-grammatical incongruity, ambiguity is prevented in actual speech by contrast in intonation patterns. Thus, for instance, a dancing girl with rise of pitch and primary stress both on the headword girl marks dancing as a present participle: "a girl performing the act of dancing". But a dancing girl, with primary stress and rise in pitch both on the modifier dancing, identifies dancing as a verbal noun and signals the meaning "a dancer" — танцівниця.

The contrast of meaning as tied to a particular intonation pattern is fairly common and is a good example of the role that prosody plays in grammar. Other examples are:

a 'dust 'mop (a mop composed a'dust mop (a mop used for dust-

of dust) ing)

a 'mad 'doctor (a doctor who a 'mad doctor (a psychiatrist) is mad)

a 'French 'teacher (a teacher a 'French teacher (a teacher of

French by nationality) the French language).

In some instances it is possible to carry the variation in stress patterns through a series of three, all correlated with differences in meaning:

a 'blackbird's nest (= nest of a blackbird)

a black 'bird's nest (= bird's nest which is black)

a black bird's 'nest (= nest of a black-coloured bird)

Premodification is widely current in present-day scientific usage where, we can say with little fear of exaggeration, such patterns have not got their equals.

The multifarious use of nominals in scientific English presents special difficulties. It is in this area of English grammar that the student's linguistic knowledge is often severely put to the test.

Different correlations of nouns and arrangements of their order present special interest in cases where such nominals consist not of two but three, four and even five elements.

Examine the following:

hydraulic work carriage traverse speed regulating valve — клапан, що регулює швидкість гідравлічного переміщення робочої каретки;

a high grade paraffin base straight mineral lubricating oil — високосортне прямої конки мінеральне мастило на парафіновій основі;

room temperature neutron bombardment effects — явища, викликані бомбардуванням нейтронами при кімнатній температурі;

long-playing microgroove full frequency range recording — мікрозапис довгограючих пластинок з повним діапазоном частот;

cabin-pressure regulator air valve lever — важіль пневматичного клапана регулятора тиску (повітря) в кабіні.

The high frequency value of such nominals in the language of science is clear without special frequency counts.

When a head noun includes several modifiers of different sorts, the result is often rather a complex thing. But in point of fact, it is always organised along strict and precise lines. The most important thing about such an adjunct-group is that unless it contains structures of coordination, it consists not of a series of parallel modifiers but of a series of structures of modification one within the other, e. g.:

hydraulic work carriage traverse speed regulating valve — клапан що регулює швидкість гідравлічного переміщення робочої каретки.

English nominalisation has given large numbers of such formations as approach compounding when the two nouns express a single idea, making up a special term in terminology or a stock-phrase in professional vocabulary: The United Nations Organisation, Security Council, Labour party, labour movement, face value, horse power, coal mine, mother oil, Trade Union, trade balance, etc.

In phraseology: mother earth, swan song, Vanity Fair, vanity bag, brain storm, brain wave, chair days ("old age"), tragedy king ("an actor playing the part of the king in a tragedy"), toy dog('^la little dog", болонка).

Some nominals fluctuate in spelling and may be written solid, hyphened or separate, e. g.:

apple tree — apple-tree — appletree brain storm — brain-storm — brainstorm brain wave — brain-wave

The direction of modification structures can have a special stylistic value. Involving different classes of nouns into modification structures of that type has long become effective for stylistic purposes. It is fairly common in Shakespearean language where numerous word-groups of this kind furnish vivid examples of the metaphoric use of the premodifying noun, as in: From Fortune with her Juory hand to her ("Timon of Athen");... two siluer currents when they joyne ("King John")¹.

In Modern English unusual premodification structures are often created by the author anew to achieve humorous effect, e. g.: The umbrella owner slowed his steps. Soapy did likewise, with a presentiment that luck would again run against him. The policeman looked at the two curiously. "Of course", said the umbrella man "that is — well, you know how these mistakes occur — I — if it's your umbrella I hope you'll excuse me — I picked it up this morning in a restaurant — if you recognise it as yours, why — I hope you'll — "."Of course, it's mine", said Soapy, viciously. The ex-umbrella man retreated. (Henry)

Nominal groups incorporate, in fact, the most general grammatical relations in the language, such as subject-predicate, verb-object and verb-prepositional object, etc. This makes great opportunities for grammatical ambiguities in this kind of phrase-structure.

Transformation as a means to formalise the implicit structural meanings of the phrase is always helpful.

To make our point clear let us take a few examples of interesting ambiguities and variant interpretations of nominals in cases like the following:

pontoon bridge, judged by the context can mean:

(a) bridge supported by pontoons;

(b) bridge floating on pontoons;

(c) bridge made of pontoons;

(d) pontoons in the form of a bridge ².

Verb-Phrases

Different ways in which verbs go patterning in structures of predication will engage our attention next.

Verb-phrases are of greater complexity than other sentence elements. They can contain multiple verb-forms, like We want to get started tomorrow morning; they can contain multiple non-verbal elements like She did not think she would be invited to the conference; verb-phrases can be discontinuous, interrupted by nominal elements, e. g.: He wanted to have his photo taken. Yet, in spite of this great complexity, we find verb-phrases in a few relatively simple patterns, which are then combined to build up complicated series of various types.

The multiplicity of ways in which verbs may be combined in actual usage permits a striking variety of patterns to be built in present-day English. It is important to see them in contrast with each other as used in different grammatical frames, larger units, in particular.

¹ Quoted bу B.Н. Ярцева. Шекспир и историческая стилистика. «Филологические науки», 1963, No.1, p. 45.

² For further reading see: R. В. Lees. The Grammar of English Nominalisations. 5th Ed., the Hague, 1968.

Verbs express meanings of occurrence — action, event, or state of affairs. Compatibility of lexical meaning naturally sets bounds on the development of all their syntactic relationships.

The patterning of particular verbs with respect to complements requires notice because of its importance to other parts of speech. Meaning relationships are very complex, as has been said. Many verbs are used with varied turns of meaning which with varied complement patterns are normal. Some verbs are used in patterns of extremely restricted type.

A verbal idea may be extended by:

a) adverbs or adverbial phrases;

b) adjectives or adjectival phrases;

c) prepositional groups;

d) infinitives;

e) participles I and II;

f) conjunctional groups;

g) subclauses.

a) VD — speaking fluently; VDP — answer at once.

Soames regarded him fixedly. (Galsworthy)

But you know what the Forsytes are, he said almost viciously. (Galsworthy)

... they both felt that they had gone quite far enough in the expression of feeling. (Galsworthy)

Adverbs generally follow the verb. But instances are not few when for the sake of emphasis they take pre-position:

Never has the Soviet Union deviated from its policy of peace and friendship among nations.

Away ran the children.

In compound tense-forms adverbial adjuncts are placed after the auxiliary verb:

But — you're — never going to bring out that about the pearls! (Galsworthy)

b) VA — came in happy;

VAP — came in, pale with fear.

Val regarded him round eyed, never having known his uncle express any sort of feeling. (Galsworthy)

Reckless of the cold, he threw his window up and gased out across the Park. (Galsworthy)

He had come back uneasy, saying Paris was overrated. (Galsworthy)

c) The use of prepositional groups to extend the verbal idea is fairly common:.

VpNT — stay in London;

VDP — do in half an hour;

VpI — go to them;

VpD — come from there;

VpVingD — enter without looking back.

d) Infinitival modifiers in verb-phrases can be structurally ambiguous. Distinction will be made between a) adverbial relations expressed by infinitival phrases and b) "succession of actions". The former

can be transformed into patterns with in order to, so as + V_inf, and clauses of purpose or time, the latter — into co-ordinated finite verb-forms. Examples are:

1) And he paused to see whether the boy understood his meaning (→ in order to see...) (Galsworthy)

He turned at the gate to look back at that russet mound, then went slowly towards the house, very choky in the throat (→ in order to look back...) (Galsworthy)

Brian laughed to think of it (→ Brian laughed when he thought of it — a subclause of time) (Sillitoe)

2) Sweat became mud on his face, ran to his mouth to be blown away when it chafed, or wiped if he had a free hand. (Sillitoe)

and was blown away when it chafed... — "succession of actions", a coordinated infinitival phrase.

She awoke to find that she was atone will always mean: She awoke and found that she was alone (the lexical meaning of the sentence-elements does not permit any other implication — the so-called lexical incongruity or improbability.

e) VV_ing — went away, smiling; VV_ingN — sat writing a letter; VV_en — came in enchanted; VV_enD — returned surprised greatly.

He walked over to the piano, and stood looking at his map while they all gathered round. (Galsworthy)

"Don't read it". On his way to the door he kissed her, smiling. " Think about me." (Cronin)

f) Patterns with the conjunctions: as, as if, as though, so as, etc.:

V AP — got up as usual;

V VP — stopped so as to see all;

V V_ingP — stood as though hesitating; V_ing V_enP — looking as if excited;

V_ing DP — running as if in alarm.

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