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In 2003 we celebrated the 100-th anniversary of the beginning of air activity by mankind. Otto Liliental, the German engineer is considered to be a forerunner of air activity; in 1891 he started making controlled flights on gliders of his own design. He learnt the nature of aerodynamic lift force and ways of controlling it from his own practical experience.
The Wright brothers were the first to join airframe to the engine and to provide its controllability in the flight. For the first time in the world on the 17-th of December 1903 they performed four controlled flights on their Flyer 1 airplane, a biplane of canard configuration on ski landing gear. Canard configuration (with front horizontal empennage) is most effective for creating sufficient attack angle at minimal take off run speed. They proved that flights of heavier-than-air aircraft were possible, and thus made their great contribution into the progress of mankind.
The boom of aviation has begun in France after the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont, resident in Paris, circled the Eiffel Tower on his airplane in 1906. In 1908 he built Demoiselle, one of the world’s first airplanes of the normal configuration, which includes tail units. Normal configuration planes dramatically reduced death rate among the aerospace exploration pioneers.
Aviation penetrated from France into the Russian empire via Ukraine. On the 8-th of March 1910 Mikhail Yefimov performed the first demonstrative flights in Odessa. He was the first professionally qualified pilot in Russia.
One week later the self-taught pilot Sergey Utochkin performed his flight over the same hippodrome in Odessa. Later on Yefimov and Utochkin performed demonstrative flights in Kharkov, Kiev, St.Petersburg, Moscow and other cities of Ukraine and Russia.
In 1909-1912 over 40 types of planes were created in Kiev, which more than in any other cities of Russia. Ihor Sikorsky (1889-1972) was the most talented pilot and aircraft designer. He constructed the first multi-engine Russian plane, designed Ilia Muromets, the best plane of the World War 1, till 1939 designed 15 types of aircraft and created about 10 types of helicopters.
Kiev was the place where Petr Nesterov (1887-1914) the father of aerobatics, performed the loop. Oleg Antonov was an outstanding designer. His Design Bureau created about 30 types of gliders and 15 types of aircraft from the smallest up to the largest ones in the world. These planes created the market of super heavy cargo transportation services in the world civil aviation.
Ruslans and Mriya (AN-225 aircraft) subdued the air world. In 2003 12 countries of the NATO made a decision to use AN-124 aircraft in their missions.
Now aviation is one of the world’s major industries, involving business and leisure activities on a grand scale, providing employment to many millions of people. Airspace is especially busy with thousands of aircraft crossing the region every day. The inevitable involvement of technology in the form of computers, satellites and data transmissions, is changing the entire approach to ATC. In the foreseeable future controllers will become airspace managers.
Термінологічний словник
| 1. | forerunner | предвестник, первопроходец |
| 2. | lift force | подъемная сила |
| 3. | airframe | корпус воздушного судна |
| 4. | controllability | управляемость |
| 5. | canard configuration | схема «утка» (переднее горизонтальное оперение) |
| 6. | empennage | (хвостовое) оперение |
| 7. | exploration | исследование |
| 8. | self - taugh | самоучка |
| 9. | loop | петля |
| 10. | to subdue | покорять, подчинять |
| 11. | inevitable | неизбежный, неминуемый |
| 12. | on a grand scale | В большом масштабе, значительно |
| 13. | aerobatics | фигуры высшего пилотажа |
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 2
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
The effects of the weather on aviation
Except perhaps for local or very short flights, a pilot, before taking off, obtains a weather forecast giving him the weather conditions which are expected along the route of his flight and at his destination. Because weather conditions affect aircraft in flight, to a considerable extent, special aviation forecasts are provided by meteorologists at weather offices all over the world.
The meteorologist, or forecaster, prepares a weather chart which shows the current weather conditions over the whole country. The current weather chart is called a synoptic chart. This synoptic chart shows the areas of low pressure, the areas of high pressure, where precipitation is falling, and all other weather conditions across the country.
From this weather map, the forecaster can advise pilots of the weather conditions they can expect to encounter during their flights. A high pressure area, for instance usually means good weather while a low pressure area usually involves one or more fronts producing clouds and precipitation over many hundreds of miles.
Pilots will pay particular attention to a low pressure area which lies en route, and the weather conditions associated with that low pressure area. The associated cold or warm fronts could involve clouds, thunderstorm, snow, rain and turbulence. From his charts, the meteorologist can forecast where this weather will be at a certain time in the future, and with the help of these predictions, the pilot will decide which route to fly and when and he will know what weather conditions to expect. If the forecast is very bad, for example, dense fog or poor visibility due to snow, the pilot may decide to postpone his flight. A pilot flying VFR would also cancel his flight because of low ceiling and low overcast conditions en route.
A pilot needs to know the wind direction and speed. A headwind will obviously delay the arrival of flights and is to be avoided if it is possible. A tailwind on the other hand, can be of great advantage as it increases the ground speed and results in a reduction in fuel consumption. Winds vary wih altitude, and also from one place to another, so information on winds is very important.
Wind blowing between areas of different air pressure, has an important influence on aircraft operations. A pilot needs to know how the wind will affect his aircraft. He needs to know things about the wind: its direction and its speed. The wind direction is where it is blowing from and the wind speed is how fast the wind is blowing. ATC gives a pilot information about the surface wind, that is the wind at ground level, in the following way: surface wind is 180/20. This means the wind is blowing from the south at a speed of 20 knots.
The words used to describe how strong the wind is are: calm, breeze, strong, gale (very strong), storm.
Calm means that there is no wind; storm means that the wind is very strong. A sudden increase in wind speed lasting only a few seconds is called a gust and the wind is described as gusting. A squall is similar to a gust but lasts longer. ATC might pass the following information to a pilot: surface wind is 280/15 gusting 25. Wind shear is the word used by ATC to warn pilots of a sudden change in wind direction or speed. Wind shear is a rapid change in wind speed or direction over a short distance horizontally or vertically. It can occur at any height, but is far more dangerous when encountered close the ground. When wind shear is forecast or is reported by aircraft, ATC will warn other aircraft until such time as aircraft report the phenomenon no longer exists. e.g. G-GD at 0745 a departing B-757 reported wind shear at 800 feet airspeed loss 20 kts. Jet streams are high level winds which are very important for navigation because they blow very fast. They can blow faster than 200 knots. Visibility is how far you can see in the weather conditions when you are flying. Visibility can affect flight operations. Turbulence happens when the smooth flow of air is disturbed by something in its path on the ground or by rising or descending air. Turbulence can be light, moderate and severe. In severe turbulence an aircraft can lose or gain a lot of height. Clear air turbulence, or CAT, occurs at high altitudes away from clouds. It is normally associated with jet streams.
Information about significant changes in metconditions in the take-off or climb area is transmitted without delay, e.g. changes in surface wind direction and speed, visibility, RVR, air temperature, thunderstorm, moderate or severe turbulence, wind shear, hail, moderate or severe icing, severe line squall, freezing rain, sand storm, dust storm, blowing snow, tornado, waterspout.
Термінологічний словник
| 1. | except | кроме | |
| 2. | perhaps | возможно | |
| 3. | a forecaster | синоптик | |
| 4. | a meteorologist | метеоролог | |
| 5. | current weather | текущая погода | |
| 6. | precipitation | осадки | |
| 7. | to encounter | сталкиваться, неожиданно встретиться | |
| 8. | to involve | включать в себя | |
| 9. | to produce | производить, создавать | |
| 10. | low | циклон, область низкого давления | |
| 11. | associated | связанный | |
| 12. | obviously | явно, очевидно | |
| 13. | a synoptic chart | синоптическая карта | |
| 14. | a low pressure | низкое давление | |
| 15. | the areas of high pressure | районы высокого давления | |
| 16. | to pay attention | уделять внимание | |
| 17. | effect | действие, влияние | |
| 18. | to effect | производить | |
| 19. | advantage | преимущество | |
| 20. | to result | происходить в результате чего-то | |
| 21. | fuel consumption | расход горючего | |
| 22. | to vary | меняться, изменяться | |
| 23. | certain | определенный | |
| 24. | prediction | предсказание | |
| 25. | ceiling | низкая облачность | |
| 26. | to postpone | откладывать | |
| 27. | overcast | сплошная облачность | |
| 28. | а reduction | понижение | |
| 29. | low ceiling | низкая облачность | |
| 30. | low overcast | низкая облачность | |
| 31. | smooth | ровный, гладкий | |
| 32. | to gain | получить, выиграть, достичь | |
| 33. | adverse weather | неблагоприятная погода | |
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 3
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Air traffic service
Control of air traffic was almost unknown when ICAO was founded in 1944. Today the air traffic control, flight information and alerting services, which together comprise air traffic services, rank high among the indispensable ground support facilities which ensure the safety and efficient operation throughout the world.
Annex 11 to the ICAO Convention defines air traffic services and specifies the world-wide Standards and Recommended Practices applicable in the provision of these services.
The world’s airspace is divided into a series of contiguous flight information
Regions (FIRs) within which air traffic services are provided. In some cases, the flight information regions cover large oceanic areas with relatively low air traffic density, within which only flight information service and alerting service are provided. In other flight information regions, large portions of the airspace are controlled airspace within which air traffic control service is provided in addition to flight information and alerting service.
The prime objective of air traffic services, as defined in Annex 11, is to prevent collision between aircraft, whether taxiing on the manoeuvring area, taking-off, landing, en-route or in the holding pattern at destination aerodrome. The Annex also deals with ways of expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of air traffic and of providing advice and information for the safe and efficient conduct of flights and alerting service for aircraft in distress. To meet these objectives, ICAO provisions call for the establishment of flight information centres and air traffic control units.
The aircraft fly in accordance with the Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) or Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Under IFR, the aircraft fly from one radio aid to the next or by reference to self-contained airborne navigation equipment from which the pilot can determine the aircraft’s position at all times. IFR flights are conducted through all but severe weather conditions, while aircraft flying under VFR must remain clear of clouds and operate in visibility conditions which will permit the pilot to see and avoid other aircraft. IFR flights are provided with air control service when operating in controlled airspace. When operating in uncontrolled airspace, flight information service, which includes information on known traffic, is provided and the pilot is responsible for arranging the flight to avoid other traffic. Control service is normally not provided to VFR flights, unless in specific areas, in which case VFR flights are separated from IFR flights but no separations is provided between VFR flights, unless specifically required by the ATC authority. However, not all aircraft are provided with air traffic services. If an aircraft is operating entirely outside of controlled airspace in an area where a flight plan is not required, the flight may not even be known to air traffic services.
Air traffic control service consists of clearances issued by air traffic control units to achieve longitudinal, vertical or lateral separation between aircraft, in accordance with the provisions set out in Annex 11.
Air Traffic Controllers at control centres in more than 60 countries of the world use the advanced technologies and the commitment to safety for those who fly. As aviation training requires a working knowledge of equipment, which is in a continuous process of innovation and modification, it is necessary to have a dedicated and skillful staff. The continuing changes in equipment and the rapid computerization is being held in many airports of Ukraine.
Aviation safety and efficiency depends on strict and rigorous professional training. The people selected to look after, and be responsible for the safety of aircraft both on the ground and in the air, must show before acceptance that they have some experience in aviation.
Термінологічний словник
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 4
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Airport design
The modern airport is a centre of most diversified services. Among the airport services are: flight assistance service, air traffic control – airport traffic control, air route traffic control, radio communication and weather service observation forecasting.
The airport has to maintain a number of supplementary services – rescue and security services. There must be an airport clinic, a fire brigade, special vehicles and equipment units (water trucks, catering trucks, air freight and baggage handling units, tow tractors for moving aircraft to the apron).
Other services cover maintenance, overhaul and repair of stationary and mobile equipment, the supply of electricity, water, heat and air conditioning. There is the Aircraft Maintenance Base with many maintenance specialists. There’s the fuel supply centre with underground pipelines.
The facilities include runways, air navigation aids, passenger or cargo terminal buildings.
The airport offers a hotel, a post office, bank offices, restaurants, snack bars and waiting lounges.
In the terminal there’s the computer information system to provide passengers with necessary flight information.
Any terminal building also provides space for the facilities for the convenience of passengers. First of all it is a central hall where passengers may rest while waiting for their flights. There may be situated various gift shops and news-stands, a post-office department, public telephones, a first aid room, chemist’s, hairdresser’s, luggage department and currency exchange.
Passengers can make a long distance call, exchange currency, buy souvenirs and other goods at the duty-free shops. Any international airport has two halls: arrival and departure, customs inspection, passport and health control. The airport terminal building is designed to facilitate safe and economic transfer of passengers and cargo between aircraft and ground transport.
The configuration of runways, the main and exit taxiways is an important element which influences the capacity of an airport. Exit taxiways are quite important for clearing landing aircraft from runway rapidly.
Lack of space for loading and unloading in the terminal area will result in delays and the number of operations an airport can handle in a peak period will be limited.
Weather conditions have an effect on airport capacity as well. The capacity of an airport during poor visibility conditions is usually less than in good visibility conditions.
Besides, the number and types of navigation aids available to pilots and controllers influence airport capacity. The development of computers helps controllers in processing aircraft at a more rapid rate.
Термінологічний словник
1. to diversify разнообразить
2. diversified разнообразный, разносторонний, многосторонний
3. supplementary дополнительный
4. rescue спасение (служба)
5. security безопасность, надежность, защита, служба безопасности
6. vehicle транспортное (перевозочное) средство
7. tow tractor буксировщик
8. overhaul тщательный осмотр (~ base – ремонтная база)
9. repair (to repair) ремонт, ремонтировать, чинить
10. to supply снабжать, поставлять, восполнять
11. pipeline телескопический трап, трубопровод
12. to include включать, заключать, содержать в себе
13. to provide снабжать, обеспечивать, предоставлять
14. maintenance техническое обслуживание
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Модуль 5
«DOC ICAO 9432 Керівництво по радіотелефонному звязку»
Тема 1
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Runway configuration
The runways and the taxiways are arranged so as:
- to provide adequate separation in the air traffic pattern;
- to cause the least interference and delay in the landing, taxiing and take-off operations;
- to provide the shortest taxiing distance possible from the terminal area to the ends of the runways and provide adequate taxiways so that landing aircraft can leave the runway as quickly as possible and follow routes as short as possible to the terminal area.
The airport may be equipped with a single runway or parallel runways, that increase considerably the airport capacity. Sometimes parallel runways are staggered. This reduces taxiway distance to and from the terminal area whenever one runway is used exclusively for landings and the other for take-offs.
At high-traffic-volume airports dual parallel runways are necessary. In this type of configuration the runways adjacent to the terminal area, rather than the outer runways are designated for landing operations. This is done to prevent landing aircraft from crossing active runways for take-offs.
The winds at some airports require runways in more than one direction.
The number, length and configuration of runways influence greatly the airport capacity. Runways should be oriented so that aircraft are not directed over populated areas and obstructions are avoided. They are oriented in the direction of the prevailing wind when it blows consistently from one direction.
As a general rule, the primary runway at an airport is oriented as close as practicable to the direction of the prevailing winds. When landing and taking off, aircraft can manoeuvre on a runway as long as the wind component at right angles to the direction of travel (defined as
cross-wind) is not excessive. The maximum allowable cross-wind depends not only on the size of aircraft but also on the wing configuration and the condition of the pavement surface.
The length of the runway depends on many factors:
- aircraft performance requirements;
- environment at the airport;
- those items which establish the operating take off and landing gross weights for each aircraft type.
Certain conditions at the airport also influence runway length. The most important of these conditions are: temperature, surface wind, altitude of the airport and condition of the runway surface.
The higher the temperature, the longer the runway required because higher temperatures reflect lower air densities, resulting in much lower output of thrust. The greater the headwind down a runway the shorter the length, and conversely, a tail wind increases the length of the runway required. An uphill gradient requires far more runway length than a downhill gradient. If all other factors are equal, the higher the altitude of the airport, the longer the runway required.
The class of an airport determines the aircraft types which can be accepted. Thus, large jet airplanes use only the airports with paved or hard surface runways, although smaller airplanes can operate from grass strips.
Answer the following questions:
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 2
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Taxiways
There is a network of taxiways, also referred to as taxi strips, at the airfield. Their purpose is to provide safe movement of aircraft about the airfield. Taxiways provide access from the runways to the terminal area and maintenance hangars, as well as from the terminal area to the take-off ends of the runways. Taxiways should be arranged so that aircraft, which landed, do not interfere with aircraft taxiing to take off.
At busy airports there is a main taxiway going parallel the runway connecting its ends. Where taxiing traffic is simultaneously in both directions parallel one-way taxiways are provided. Routes are selected to provide the shortest practicable distances from the terminal area to the end of the runways used for take-off. Whenever possible, taxiways are routed so as to avoid crossing of active runways.
During peak traffic periods, when a continuous supply of aircraft is available, the capacity of a runway is dependent, to a large degree, on how quickly landing aircraft can be vacated from the runway. Therefore, taxiways should be located at various points along the runway, so that landing aircraft can leave the runway as quickly as possible to clear it for use by other aircraft.
The location of exit taxiways is also influenced by the location of the runways relative to the terminal area.
Match the English translation to the Russian word phrases:
магистральная рулежная дорожка access
доступ runway occupancy time
освобождать полосу main taxiway
пропускная способность runway capacity
состояние покрытия to avoid crossing
РД скоростного схода one-way taxiway
избегать пересечения to vacate the runway
смешать pavement condition
РД с односторонним движением structural pavement
время пребывания на ВПП high-speed exit taxiway
искусственное покрытие shoulder
смежный to prevail
обочина adjacent
преобладать to stagger
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 3
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Read and memory the dialogue in pairs:
T: What are the taxiways designed for?
S: The purpose of the taxiways is to provide movement of aircraft about the airfield.
T: Tell me, please. Which of the taxiways is the main taxiway?
S: The main taxiway is parallel to the runway and connects its ends.
T: Right you are. There are connecting taxiways and taxiways leading to the terminal area.
T: To provide safe landings of aircraft there are terminal safety lines at both ends of the runway and side safety lines (or strips) along it. Can you guess the meaning of these terms?
S: I think I can. The terminal safety lines means «концевая полоса безопасности» and the side safety line means «боковая полова безопасности».
T: Yes, you are quite right. What do the terminal and side safety lines serve for?
S: The terminal and side safety lines serve to provide safe aircraft landings.
T: Large airports have paved or hard surface runways, that means «взлетно-посадочная полоса с твердым покрытием». What kind of runways have large airports?
S: Large airports have paved or hard surface runways.
T: Large airplanes use only the airports with hard surface runways, although smaller planes can operate from grass strips. Can you guess what is the Russian for a “grass strip”?
S: I think I can. It is «грунтовая полоса», isn’t it?
T: Yes, that’s correct. What runways can large jet airplanes use?
S: Large jet airplanes can operate only from paved or hard surface runways.
T: The runway length depends on many factors, among them: altitude, climate, types and weights of airplanes.
So, will you remember the factors that influence the runway length?
S: The runway length depends on such factors as: altitude, climate, types and weights of airplanes.
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 4
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
Measure equipment (radio-navigation aids –VOR/ DME)
Apart from taking their bearing from the stars, how do pilots navigate? The answer, of course, is in the use of radio navigation aids. There are a variety of different types of radio navigation aids but here we shall discuss VOR and DME only.
VOR and DME are often located at the same site. They operate on VHF and UHF respectively and, as a consequence, are not affected by static or other interferences. The maximum range of VOR is about 200 nautical miles. By flying VOR the pilot ensures he is flying directly to the station. Also by measuring his radials from more than one VOR station, a pilot can check his position.
The function of DME, which is short for Distance Measuring Equipment, is, as its title describes, to measure distance. The DME measures, electronically, the time is taken for signal, transmitted, from an aircraft interrogator, to reach the ground based station transponder, and return. This elapsed time is converted to miles and appears on a digital indicator on the flight deck. The indicator actually seems to rapidly count the number of miles between the aircraft and the station giving the pilot a continuous digital reading of how far he is from, or to, a station.
With the many VOR/DME stations along his route, a pilot can make good his desired track; is constantly aware of his distance to or from a DME station; or, by using two VOR radials, establish his exact position.
Термінологічний словник
1. bearing пеленг
2. radio navigation радионавигационные средства
3. VOR высокочастотный многонаправленный маяк
4. DME оборудование для измерения расстояния
5. static зд. pадио или атмосферные помехи
6. interference помехи создаваемые другой станцией
7. nautical miles расстояние равное 6080 футов
8. radials трасса или маршрут до или от VOR
9. interrogator электронный прибор в самолете
10. transponder наземный приемо-передатчик
11. reading зд. цифровой указатель расстояния на приборной доске
Рекомендована література
1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.9, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13.
Тема 5
Питання для самостійного вивчення:
· огляд рекомендованої літератури, бібліографічних і довідкових джерел, преси англійською мовою.
Завдання для самоконтролю знань
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