Social rules and regulation

Gender rules in socialization

A gender role can be defined as a set of social and behavioral norms that are generally considered appropriate for either a man or a woman in a social or interpersonal relationship. There are differences of opinion as to which observed differences in behavior and personality between genders are entirely due to innate personality of the person and which are due to cultural or social factors, and are therefore the product of socialization, or to what extent gender differences are due to biological and physiological differences. Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently. Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised to conform to the female gender or role. A gender role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.

2.Informal and formal social control.Social control can be considered as an important aspect of an individual’s socialization process. Formal social control is implemented by authorized agents including police officers, employers, military officers, and others. It is carried out as a last option at some places when the desired behavior is not possible through informal social control. The situations and severity where formal control is practiced varies with countries. This is practiced through law as statutes, rules, and regulations against deviant social behavior. Informal Social Control:It is exercised by a society without stating any rules or laws. It is expressed through norms and customs. Social control is performed by informal agents on their own in an unofficial capacity. Traditional societies mostly embed informal social control culture to establish social order. Shame, sarcasm, criticism, ridicule and disapproval are some of the informal sanctions.Social discrimination and exclusion are included in informal control at extreme deviant cases. Self-identity, self-worth and self-esteem are affected in informal control through loss of group approval or membership. The severity and nature of informal control mechanisms differ from varied individuals, groups, and societies.

Sociological perspective.Discipline of sociology is concerned with the understanding of human societies. Sociology, in pursuing an objective scientific approach to answering the questions posed above, attempts to explain why social life is not a random series of events, but is structured and shaped by particular sets of Sociology, also like any other academic discipline which has as its object of study the human and social world, consists of a range of competing explanatory paradigms. A key assertion of the Marxist perspective is that material production is the most fundamental of all human activities - from the production of the most basic of human necessities such as food, shelter and clothing in a subsistence economy, to the mass production of commodities in modern capitalist societies.The functionalist perspective stresses the essential stability and cooperation within modern societies. Social events are explained by reference to the functions they perform in enabling continuity within society. Society itself is likened to a biological organism in that the whole is seen to be made up of interconnected and integrated parts; this integration is the result of a general consensus on core values and norms.

#2

1.Socialization in childhood.Human infants are born without any culture.They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals.The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization.During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives, and mothers. In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in store for them. Socialization, it's a concepts that many people aren't consciously aware of, yet it is experienced every day in many different aspects of life. Ones manners, people skills, and the like are all a result of ones socialization. Children should being socialization at a young age to prepare them to interact with other children and adults as they grow. Socialization alone can move a child from having a dramatic experience when being left with a care giver to a more pleasant one. Not only does the child benefit from this, but the parents do as well. Often parents feel that since their child does not react well to other that they are confined to home without a night out or a play date with another family. This simply is not true. A child can and should become acquainted with other children, extended family, and eventually a care giver or baby sitter. This can soften the blow to the child and parents when the later must leave for work, a leisurely night out, or a to run errands.

2.Gender identity. Gender identity is a person's private sense, and subjective experience, of their own gender. This is generally described as one's private sense of being a man or a woman, consisting primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of people: male or female. All societies have a set of gender categories that can serve as the basis of the formation of a social identity in relation to other members of society. Basic gender identity—the concept “I am a boy” or “I am a girl”—is generally established by the time the child reaches the age of three and is extremely difficult to modify thereafter. Like an individual’s concept of his or her sex role, gender identity develops by means of parental example, social reinforcement, and language. Parents teach sex-appropriate behaviour to their children from an early age, and this behaviour is reinforced as the child grows older and enters a wider social world. As the child acquires language, he also learns very early the distinction between “he” and “she” and understands which pertains to him- or herself.

3.Social control. Social control is a concept that refers to the ways in which people’s thoughts, feelings, appearance, and behavior are regulated in social systems. One way this is done is through coercion, from imprisoning those who commit a crime to physicians administering drugs that make difficult patients more manageable. Social control, however, is mainly done through socialization in which people come to identify with a social system and its values and norms, thereby acquiring a stake in maintaining those values and norms.

#3

1.The culture: definition

Culture may be defined as the totality of the mental and physical reactions and activities that characterize the behavior of individuals composing a social group collectively and individually in relations to their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group itself and of each individual to himself. It also includes the products of these activities and their role in the life of the groups. The mere enumerations of these various aspects of life, however, does not constitute culture. It is more, for its elements are not independent, they have a structure. Culture means the whole complex of traditional behavior which has been developed by the human race and is successively learned by each generation. A culture is less precise. It can mean the forms of traditional behavior which are characteristics of a given society, or of a group of societies, or of a certain race, or of a certain area, or of a certain period of time.

Gender socialization

Gender socialization is the process by which men and women learn the expectations associated with their sex. Gender socialization affects all aspects of daily life and society, including one’s self-concept, social and political attitudes, and perceptions and relationships about other people. Family, peers, schooling, religious training, mass media, and popular culture are just a few of the agents through which gender socialization happens. It is reinforced whenever gender-linked behaviors receive approval or disapproval from these influences.

One result of gender socialization is the formation of gender identity, which is one’s definition of oneself as a man or woman. Gender identity shapes how we think about others and ourselves and also influences our behaviors. For example, gender differences exist in the likelihood of drug and alcohol abuse, violent behavior, depression, and aggressive driving. Gender identity also has an especially strong effect on our feelings about our appearance and our body image, especially for females.

The types of socialization

Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the ground work for all future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. Secondary socialization Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Anticipatory socialization Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role. Group socialization Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, influences his or her personality and behavior in adulthood. Positive socialization Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialization Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.

#4

The ideology of punks subculture. The punk subculture, which centres on punk rock music, includes a diverse array of ideologies, fashions and forms of expression, including visual art, dance, literature and film. The subculture is largely characterized by anti-establishment views and the promotion of individual freedom. The punk subculture emerged in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia in the mid-1970s. Punk is made up of an assortment of smaller subcultures, including anarcho-punk, crust punk, and horror punk, which distinguish themselves through unique articulations of punk culture.

2.Social order: main concepts. social order is a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which conserve, maintain and enforce ways of relating and behaving. A "social order" is a relatively persistent system of institutions, patterns of interactions and customs, capable of continually reproducing at least those conditions essential for its own existence. The concept refers to all those facts of society which remain relatively constant over time. These conditions could include both property, exchange and power relations, but also cultural forms, communication relations and ideological systems of values. Another key factor concerning social order is the principle of extensiveness. This states the more norms and the more important the norms are to a society, the better these norms tie and hold together the group as a whole.

3.The world religion Hinduism. Hinduism is the dominant religion of the Indian subcontinent, particularly of India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world. It includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism among numerous other traditions, and a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Unmanifest Reality. Hindus believe in the divinity of the four Vedas, the world's most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God's word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.

#5

1.Popular culture: the definition and content. Popular culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society. Although terms popular culture and pop culture are in some cases used interchangeably, and their meanings partially overlap, the term "pop", which dates from the late 1950s, belongs to a particular society and historical period. Pop refers more specifically to something containing qualities of mass appeal, while "popular" refers to what has gained popularity, regardless of its style.

Two methods of ensuring social conformity. Normative Conformity.

Yielding to group pressure because a person wants to fit in with the group. Informative conformity. This usually occurs when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group for guidance. Ingratiational Conformity. Where a person conforms to impress or gain favor/acceptance from other people.

The biology use of gender identity. gender identity is a multifaceted system of ideas surrounding masculinity and femininity, in terms of the roles prescribed to men and women by society, and how they relate to maleness and femaleness in relation to the self. Gender identity is presented through behavioral expressions of masculinity and femininity, feelings surrounding the body as a sexual, and individual perceptions regarding how others will respond to expressions of gender. Sexual differentiation is a purely biological process, unlike gender identity. Gender identity develops under the influence of a range of environmental factors such as social reinforcement, language use, and parental example. Children learn behavior that is sex-appropriate from their parents, which is then reinforced by society. They also learn the meaning of he and she, and how to apply such terms to themselves. Sex-differentiated behavior has a more biological basis. Environmental influences can affect the brain, and ultimately behavior. As one learns, feedback mechanisms and behavior are altered, and the brain changes

#6

The subject of sociology. Sociology is the study of human social behavior collective behaviour and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is a social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions. A goal for many sociologists is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure.

2. Distinguish between formal and informal social control. Social control can be considered as an important aspect of an individual’s socialization process. Formal social control is implemented by authorized agents including police officers, employers, military officers, and others. It is carried out as a last option at some places when the desired behavior is not possible through informal social control. The situations and severity where formal control is practiced varies with countries. This is practiced through law as statutes, rules, and regulations against deviant social behavior. Informal Social Control:It is exercised by a society without stating any rules or laws. It is expressed through norms and customs. Social control is performed by informal agents on their own in an unofficial capacity. Traditional societies mostly embed informal social control culture to establish social order. Shame, sarcasm, criticism, ridicule and disapproval are some of the informal sanctions.Social discrimination and exclusion are included in informal control at extreme deviant cases. Self-identity, self-worth and self-esteem are affected in informal control through loss of group approval or membership. The severity and nature of informal control mechanisms differ from varied individuals, groups, and societies.

3.Hippies’ subculture: origin and ideology. The hippie subculture was originally a youth movement that arose in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. Hippies created their own communities, listened to psychedelic rock, embraced the sexual revolution, and some used drugs such as cannabis, LSD, and magic mushrooms to explore altered states of consciousness. In January 1967, the Human Be-In in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco popularized hippie culture, leading to the Summer of Love on the West Coast of the United States, and the 1969 Woodstock Festival on the East Coast. Hippies sought to free themselves from societal restrictions, choose their own way, and find new meaning in life. One expression of hippie independence from societal norms was found in their standard of dress and grooming, which made hippies instantly recognizable to one another, and served as a visual symbol of their respect for individual rights.

#7

The branches of sociology. As the human race and its societies evolve, so does the ever-expanding field of sociology. Sociology is science of society which deals with human behaviour, interaction, relationship and system. Being a general subject, sociology studies different aspects of society. To study such field of knowledge, which is studied by different branches of society. e.g. The economic aspects of society is studied by economic sociology, political aspect is studied by political sociology. Medical sociology is the sociological analysis of medical organizations and institutions; the production of knowledge and selection of methods, the actions and interactions of healthcare professionals, and the social or cultural (rather than clinical or bodily) effects of medical practice. The sociological study of peace, war, and social conflict entails the use of sociological theory and methods to analyze group conflicts, especially collective violence and alternative constructive nonviolent forms of conflict.

2.Folk and mass cultures. Folk culture refers to a culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups. Historically, handed down through oral tradition, it demonstrates the "old ways" over novelty and relates to a sense of community. Folk culture is quite often imbued with a sense of place. If elements of a folk culture are copied by, or moved to, a foreign locale, they will still carry strong connotations of their original place of creation. Examples of American folk cultures include:Powwows

Native tribal regalia The cakewalk. Mass culture is the set of ideas and values that develop from a common exposure to the same media, news sources, music, and art. Mass culture is broadcast or otherwise distributed to individuals instead of arising from their day-to-day interactions with each other. Thus, mass culture generally lacks the unique content of local communities and regional cultures. Frequently, it promotes the role of individuals as consumers. With the rise of publishing and broadcasting in the 19th and 20th centuries, the scope of mass culture expanded dramatically. It replaced folklore, which was the cultural mainstream of traditional local societies. With the growth of the Internet since the 1990s, many distinctions between mass media and folklore have become blurred.

3 The modern youth subcultures: origin and ideology. A youth subculture is a youth-based subculture with distinct styles, behaviors, and interests. Youth subcultures offer participants an identity outside of that ascribed by social institutions such as family, work, home and school. Youth subcultures that show a systematic hostility to the dominant culture are sometimes described as countercultures.

Youth music genres are associated with many youth subcultures, such as punks, emos, ravers, Juggalos, metalheads and goths. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of the symbolism attached to clothing, music, other visible affections by members of the subculture, and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.

#8

The essence of socialization.

Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others. We begin learning from others during the early days of life; and most people continue their social learning all through life. Socialization describes a process which may lead to desirable, or 'moral', outcomes in the opinion of said society. Individual views on certain issues, such as race or economics, are influenced by the view of the society at large and become a "normal," and acceptable outlook or value to have within a society.

2.The world religion Buddhism. Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one". The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. Specifically, samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence,[a] where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering. Samsara arises out of avidya (ignorance) and is characterized by dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path.

3.Difference between high culture, mass and popular culture. Mass culture is the set of ideas and values that develop from a common exposure to the same media, news sources, music, and art. Mass culture is broadcast or otherwise distributed to individuals instead of arising from their day-to-day interactions with each other. Thus, mass culture generally lacks the unique content of local communities and regional cultures. Frequently, it promotes the role of individuals as consumers. With the rise of publishing and broadcasting in the 19th and 20th centuries, the scope of mass culture expanded dramatically. It replaced folklore, which was the cultural mainstream of traditional local societies. High culture is a term used to explain or illustrate elite aristocratic culture. It is currently used in different ways in academic discourse, whose most common meaning is the set of cultural products. It has also been used to detach the 'elite' from the 'barbaric.'. Popular culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the early to mid 20th century and the emerging global mainstream of the late 20th and early 21st century.

#9

The primary socialization

Distinguish between high and mass cultures

The ideology of Rastafarians

1. Socialization is the process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group. Primary socialization is the learning we experience from the people who raise us. In order for children to grow and thrive, caregivers must satisfy their physical needs, including food, clothing, and shelter. Caregivers must also teach children what they need to know in order to function as members of a society, including norms, values, and language. If children do not receive adequate primary socialization, they tend not to fare well as adults. Primary socialization refers to the process by which children learn the cultural norms of the society into which they are born. The process occurs mainly in the family unit. It happens when parents teach children the norms and morals of society. Primary socialization in sociology is the acceptance and learning of a set of norms and values established through the process of socialization. Primary socialization occurs during childhood and is when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

2. "High culture" it is the culture of an upper class such as an aristocracy or an intelligentsia, but it can also be defined as a repository of a broad cultural knowledge, a way of transcending the class system. In the Western tradition high culture has historical origins in the intellectual and aesthetic ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. The culture of the elite. For centuries an immersion in high culture was deemed an essential part of the proper education of the gentleman, and this ideal was transmitted through high-status schools and institutions throughout Europe and the United States. the cultivation of refined etiquette and manners; an appreciation of the fine arts - especially sculpture and painting; a knowledge of such literature, drama, and poetry considered to be of high caliber; enjoyment of European classical music and opera; religion and theology; rhetoric and politics; the study of philosophy and history; a taste for gourmet cuisine and wine; being well traveled and especially "The Grand Tour of Europe"; certain sports associated with the upper classes, such as polo, equestrianism, fencing, and yachting. Mass culture - the culture that is widely disseminated via the mass media culture - the tastes in art and manners that are favored by a social group. Mass culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society.

3. The Rastafarian movement is an African-based spiritual ideology that arose in the 1930s in Jamaica. The Rastafarian way of life encompasses themes such as the spiritual use of cannabis and the rejection of the degenerate society of materialism, oppression, and sensual pleasures. Rastafarian also embraces various Afro-centric and Pan-African social and political aspirations. Rastafarian is monotheists, worshiping a singular God whom they call Jah. Many Rastafarian are physical immortalists who maintain that the chosen few will continue to live forever in their current bodies. This is commonly called "Life Ever living". Rasta’s strongly rejecting the idea that heaven is in the sky, or is a place where dead people go to and instead see heaven as being a place on Earth, specifically Ethiopia. There are two types of Rasta religious ceremonies: Reasoning and Groundation. Generally, Rastas assert that their own bodies are the true church or temple of God, and so see no need to make temples or churches out of physical buildings.

#10

Elements of social stratification

Differences between folk and mass 3cultures

The working – class youth subcultures

1. In sociology, social stratification is a concept involving the "classification of people into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions." It is a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Social stratification is based on four basic principles: 1) Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences; 2) Social stratification carries over from generation to generation; 3) Social stratification is universal but variable; 4) Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. In modern Western societies, stratification is broadly organized into three main layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class. The Stratification Three Class System was developed by German sociologist Max Weber with class, status and party as distinct ideal types. Wealth: includes property such as buildings, lands, farms, houses, factories and as well as other assets - Economic Situation. Prestige: the respect with which a person or status position is regarded by others - Status Situation. Power: the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others – Parties.

Mass culture - the culture that is widely disseminated via the mass media culture - the tastes in art and manners that are favored by a social group. Mass culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the late 20th and early 21st century. Heavily influenced by mass media, this collection of ideas permeates the everyday lives of the society. Advertising and the mass media created a mass culture for profit, which reinforces the false consciousness of the working class. The Mass Society, brought about by mass production and mass consumption. Traditional thinking was replaced by scientific thinking and folk culture was replaced by mass culture. Mass culture, not like folk from ordinary folk, but a commercial product imposed on the masses, which can only choose to buy or not buy. Folk culture is from traditional rural society. Mass culture is a modern, urban phenomenon. Folk culture is produced, mass culture is consumed. Folk culture is produced by families and societies; mass culture is produced by capitalism.

3. A subculture group forms when the larger culture fails to meet the needs of a particular group of people. They offer different patterns of living values and behavior norms, but there is dependence on the larger culture for general goals and direction. In the youth subculture, youth find their age-related needs met. Flower people, hippies, hipsters - a youth subculture (mostly from the middle class) originating in San Francisco in the 1960s; advocated universal love and peace and communes and long hair and soft drugs; favored acid rock and progressive rock music. Punks - a youth subculture closely associated with punk rock music in the late 1970s; in part a reaction to the hippy subculture; dress was optional but intended to shock (plastic garbage bags or old school uniforms) and hair was dyed in bright colors (in Mohican haircuts or sometimes spiked in bright plumes). Bikers, rockers - originally a British youth subculture that evolved out of the teddy boys in the 1960s; wore black leather jackets and jeans and boots; had greased hair and rode motorcycles and listened to rock'n'roll; were largely unskilled manual laborers.

#11

Social rules and regulation

2. Subcultures of Moses: origin and ideology

3. Religion: problems of definition

1. Social rules systems include institutions such as norms, laws, regulations, taboos, customs, and a variety of related concepts and are important in the social sciences and humanities. Social rule systems are used to examine all levels of human interaction. They provide more than potential constraints on action possibilities. Social rules- a convention is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalize or enforce the convention. Norms are more specific than values or ideals: honesty is a general value, but the rules defining what honest behavior in a particular situation is are norms. Social regulation refers generally to societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior in an attempt to gain conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group. Sociologists identify two basic forms of social control: informal means of control and formal means of social control.

Moses was a religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet. He is the most important prophet in Judaism. He is also an important prophet in Christianity and Islam, as well as a number of other faiths When Moses was born the Hebrews were slaves in Egypt. But to save Moses his mother made a plan. She hid him in a basket by the side of the River Nile. Moses grew up as an Egyptian prince. But he never forgot he was a Hebrew. God spoke to him, he must free the Hebrews from slavery.

3. The term religion means many things to many people. It is in fact highly ambiguous; it means a variety of things to different people. Friedrich Schleiermacher, an important nineteenth-century German theologian and philosopher, defined religion as the "the feeling of absolute dependence." The definition of religion is based on the person's feeling and intuition that he or she is completely dependent on God, the Infinite, or the Eternal. Schleiermacher also said that "true religion is sense and taste for the Infinite." Anthony Wallace defines religion as "set of rituals, rationalized by myth, which mobilizes supernatural powers for the purpose of achieving or preventing transformations of state in man or nature." The Universal Dictionary of the English Language defines religion as a "specific system of belief in God, including a group of doctrines concerning Him, and His relations to man and the universe." The fourth distinguishing characteristic of some definitions of religion is monotheism, a term that emphasizes the important relationship between humanity and the one God. Whitehead defined religion this way: "Religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness; and if you were never solitary, you were never religious." Thus religion is the attempt from within a human culture, to give expression to a perception and experience of value that at once surpasses, orders, and criticizes all other penultimate values expressed by that culture.

#12

1. The black working – class youth subcultures

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