The construction of social identities

The world religion Christianity

A subculture group forms when the larger culture fails to meet the needs of a particular group of people. They offer different patterns of living values and behavior norms, but there is dependence on the larger culture for general goals and direction. In the youth subculture, youth find their age-related needs met. Rastafari, Rastas - (Jamaica) a Black youth subculture and religious movement that arose in the ghettos of Kingston, Jamaica, in the 1950s; males grow hair in long dreadlocks and wear woolen caps; use marijuana and listen to reggae music. Rastafarian also embraces various Afro-centric and Pan-African social and political aspirations. Rastafarian is monotheists, worshiping a singular God whom they call Jah. Generally, Rasta assert that their own bodies are the true church or temple of God, and so see no need to make temples or churches out of physical buildings.

2. In sociology, identity is a person's conception and expression of their individuality or group affiliations (such as national identity and cultural identity). Identity may be defined as the distinctive characteristic belonging to any given individual, or shared by all members of a particular social category or group. However, the formation of one's identity occurs through one's identifications with significant others (primarily with parents and other individuals during one's biographical experiences, and also with 'groups' as they are perceived). A psychological identity relates to self-image self-esteem, and individuality. An important part of identity in psychology is gender identity, as this dictates to a significant degree how an individual views him or herself both as a person and in relation to other people, ideas and nature. Other aspects of identity, such as racial, religious, ethnic, occupational… etc. may also be more or less significant. A structural representation of the individual's existential experience, in which the relationships between self and other agents are organized in relatively stable structures over time … with the emphasis on the socio-cultural milieu in which self relates to other agents and institutions.

3. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with approximately 2.2 billion adherents, known as Christians. Most Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, fully divine and fully human. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and oral teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization. Worldwide, the three largest groups of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the various denominations of Protestantism. The Ten Commandments are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship which play a fundamental role in Judaism and most forms of Christianity. They include instructions to worship only God and to keep the Sabbath, and prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy, murder, theft, and adultery. Seeing God as made three people in one: father, son and Holy Ghost. The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. Christianity regards the Biblical canon, the Old Testament and New Testament, as the inspired word of God. Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Differences occur firstly, on whether the act has any spiritual significance, some churches hold to the doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation; this view is held by Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

#13

The secondary socialization

The rule of mass media in consumer culture

3. Dimensions of inequality: social stratification

Socialization is the process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group. Secondary socialization is the behavior positively reinforced from the society. Secondary socialization in education involves teaching children norms, values, socially accepted behaviour and social limitations and barriers. Secondary socialization takes place throughout ones life. Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, it is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to act in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in schools require very different behavior from the home, and Children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them. Secondary Socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Such examples of Secondary Socialization are entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

Mass culture - the culture that is widely disseminated via the mass media culture - the tastes in art and manners that are favored by a social group. Mass culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture. From the beginning of consumer culture, the media, particularly print advertisements, were used to help inculcate demand for newly mass-produced goods. They believed that they could be manipulated not only to induce consumers to buy particular products but also to create in them a habitual desire to participate in the marketplace to extract social meaning. Advertisers appropriated sacred symbolism to imbue products with spiritual significance.

3. Stratification system that is based on a hierarchy of power, privilege (honor and respect), and prestige (income, wealth, and property), which leads to patterns of social inequality. Social inequality is typically tied to race, gender, and class, with whites, males, those with higher education levels, and those with higher income levels sitting at the top of the hierarchy. Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments. There are two main ways to measure social inequality: inequality of conditions, and inequality of opportunities. Inequality of conditions refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth and material goods. Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances" across individuals. There are two main views of social inequality within sociology. One view aligns with the functionalist theory and the other aligns with conflict theory. Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an important function in society. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, view inequality as resulting from groups with power dominating less powerful groups. Social inequality as a social problem that encompasses three dimensions: objective structural conditions, ideological supports, and social reforms.

#14

1. The socialization: the content of the process

The features of popular culture

3. The concept of subculture – definition, activity and local concerns

1. Socialization is the process whereby we learn to become competent members of a group. Socialization is broadly defined as “a process in which an individual acquires the attitudes, behaviors and knowledge needed to successfully participate as an organizational member.” It represents a sense-making process that helps new hires adapt, form work relationships and find their place in the organization. A typical socialization process includes three phases:

1. Anticipatory socialization: This stage occurs before new hires join the organization. Through interacting with representatives of the company (e.g., recruiters, managers), new hires develop expectations about the company and the job prior to organizational entry.

2. Encounter: When new employees begin a new job, they start to learn about job tasks and receive training. Managers can exert their influence by helping new employees understand their roles and duties. Also, by understanding the stresses and issues that newcomers experience, managers can help cultivate a high-quality work relationship with newcomers.

3. Settling in: New employees begin to feel comfortable with their job demands and social relationships. They will be interested in the company’s evaluation of their performance and in learning about potential career opportunities within the company.

2. Popular culture is the entirety of ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena that are within the mainstream of a given culture, especially Western culture of the late 20th and early 21st century. Popular culture- cultural activities or commercial products reflecting, suited to, oraimed at the tastes of the general masses of people. Characteristics of popular culture: Constantly changing, Based in large, heterogeneous groups of people, Based mainly in urban areas, Material goods mass-produced by machines in factories, Prevailing money economy, More numerous individual relationships, but less personal; Weaker family structure; Distinct division of labor with highly specialized professions and jobs; Considerable leisure time available to most people; Police, army, and courts take the place of family and church in maintaining order.

In sociology, and cultural studies, a subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates them from the larger culture to which they belong. Subculture- cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing, music and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. Subcultures can exist at all levels of organizations, highlighting the fact that there are multiple cultures or value combinations usually evident in any one organization that can complement but also compete with the overall organizational culture. In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed. Youth subcultures have been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of society within the post-war consensus. British youths in the post-war era were labeled as troublemakers by members of the dominant culture.

#15

The social identities and rules

Distinguish between culture and subculture

The main social layers in modern postindustrial societies

1. In sociology, identity is a person's conception and expression of their individuality or group affiliations (such as national identity and cultural identity). Identity may be defined as the distinctive characteristic belonging to any given individual, or shared by all members of a particular social category or group. An important part of identity in psychology is gender identity, as this dictates to a significant degree how an individual views him or herself both as a person and in relation to other people, ideas and nature. Social rules systems include institutions such as norms, laws, regulations, taboos, customs, and a variety of related concepts and are important in the social sciences and humanities. Social rule systems are used to examine all levels of human interaction. They provide more than potential constraints on action possibilities. Social rules- a convention is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a custom.

2. Culture- the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or society; the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively. Aspects of human expression include both material culture and ephemeral elements: Language and dialect; Science; Technology; Cuisine; Aesthetics - art, music, literature, fashion, and architecture; Values, ideology; Social conventions; including norms, taboos, and etiquette; Gender roles; Recreational activities; Commercial practices; Social structure; Religion. Subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates them from the larger culture to which they belong. Subculture- cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger culture. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing, music and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.

3. Post-industrial society is a concept in sociology describing a certain stage of society's development when the service sector generates more wealth than the manufacturing sector of the economy. Socio-cultural evolution can be defined as "the process by which structural reorganization is affected through time, eventually producing a form or structure which is qualitatively different from the ancestral form." Social stratification is a concept involving the "classification of people into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions. When differences lead to greater status, power or privilege for some groups over the other it is called social stratification. In modern Western societies, stratification is broadly organized into three main layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes. One of the ongoing issues in determining social stratification arises from the point that status inequalities between individuals are common, so it becomes a quantitative issue to determine how much inequality qualifies as stratification.

#16

The upper class in modern postindustrial societies

The difference between formal and informal social control

The importance of socialization

1. The upper class is the social class composed of those who are wealthy, well-born, or both. The upper class in modern societies is often considered by middle class social scientists and their adherents to be the social class composed of the wealthiest members of society, who also wield the greatest political power. According to this view, the upper class is generally contained within the wealthiest 1-2% of the population, and is distinguished by immense wealth (in the form of estates) which is passed on from generation to generation. This popular definition is at odds, however, with how the upper class views itself: as members of families that have been long distinguished not merely by wealth or fame which are ostensibly available to all in a democratic society but rather by generations of leadership in public service, education, charity, the military, and the arts. In others, only people born into certain aristocratic bloodlines are considered members of the upper class. Members of the upper class are often born into it, and are distinguished by immense wealth which is passed from generation to generation in the form of estates. Sometimes members of the upper class are called "the one percent".

2. Social control refers generally to societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior in an attempt to gain conformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group. Sociologists identify two basic forms of social control: Informal means of control and formal means of social control. The social values present in individuals are products of informal social control, exercised implicitly by a society through particular customs, norms, and mores. Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval, which can cause an individual to stray towards the social norms of the society. Historically, rulers have legitimately used torture as a means of mind control as well as murder, imprisonment and exile to remove from public space anyone the state authorities deemed to be undesirable. Control here is based around the idea of formal, legal, norms of behavior. In general terms, formal rules and social controls exist to tell everyone within a society or social group what is and is not acceptable in terms of behavior.

3. Socialization is the process a child goes through while growing up; they learn and develop by following in the footsteps of their family, peers, teachers, and the media. Along the way they develop a sense of self and become their own person. This is also known as internalization, the process in which people take as their own and accept the norms, values, beliefs, and language that their peers are attempting to pass on. Family, school, peers and mass media are all major agents of a child’s socialization. Without interacting with these agents, a child can suffer in many ways. Extreme isolation can effect a child’s emotional, mental, and physical development. While if a child experiences nature, nurture, and gets to watch television and interacts with people, the child will be able to develop as a person and learn and have normal social graces. For a child to have this bond to help develop there must be at least one person who knows the child well enough to understand his or her needs and feelings who will act to satisfy them. For example, children go to adults with their questions and needs, adults respond by offering explanations, expressing concern, or no concern. This is one kind of socialization. And socialization and enculturation allow humans to adapt to their environment (ex. work, school, and home, with friends) and act appropriately. They need friends and good role models too...just not my kid during his or her formative years.

#17

1.Social control refers generally to societal and political mechanisms or processes that regulate individual and group behavior in an attempt to gainconformity and compliance to the rules of a given society, state, or social group. Sociologists identify two basic forms of social control: 1.Informal means of control - Internalisation of norms and values by a process known as socialization, which is defined as "the process by which an individual, born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group standards."^[1] Formal means of social control - External sanctions enforced by government to prevent the establishment of chaos or anomie in society. Some theorists, such as Émile Durkheim, refer to this form of control as regulation.

While the concept of social control has been around since the formation of organized sociology, the meaning has been altered over time. Originally, the concept simply referred to society's ability to regulate itself.^[2] However, in the 1930s, the term took on its more modern meaning of an individual's conversion to conformity.^[2] Social control theory began to be studied as a separate field in the early 20th century. As briefly defined above, the means to enforce social control can be either informal or formal.^[3] Sociologist Edward A. Ross argues that belief systems exert a greater control on human behavior than laws imposed by government, no matter what form the beliefs take. 2. A youth subculture is a youth-based subculture with distinct styles, behaviors, and interests. Youth subcultures offer participants an identity outside of that ascribed by social institutions such as family, work, home and school. Youth subcultures that show a systematic hostility to the dominant culture are sometimes described as countercultures. Youth music genres are associated with many youth subcultures, such as punks, emos, ravers, Juggalos, metalheads and goths. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of the symbolism attached to clothing, music, other visible affections by members of the subculture, and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.

Socioeconomic class, gender, intelligence, conformity, morality, and ethnicity can be important in relation to youth subcultures. Youth subcultures can be defined as meaning systems, modes of expression or lifestyles developed by groups in subordinate structural positions in response to dominant systems — and which reflect their attempt to solve structural contradictions rising from the wider societal context.

Example of a participant in emosubculture.

The term scene can refer to an exclusive subculture or faction. Scenes are distinguished from the broad culture through either fashion; identification with specific (sometimes obscure or experimental) musical genres or political perspectives; and a strong in-group or tribal mentality.^[2] The term can be used to describe geographic subsets of a subculture, such as the Detroit drum and bass scene or the London goth scene

3. Islam is a monotheistic religion based on revelations received by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century, which were later recorded in the Qur'an (Koran), Islam's sacred text. The faith spread rapidly and today Islam is the second largest religion in the world. The Arabic word islam means "submission," reflecting the religion's central tenet of submitting to the will of God. Islamic practices are defined by the Five Pillars of Islam: faith, prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and alms. "Islam" means "Peace through the submission to God"."Muslim" means "anyone or anything that submits itself to the will of God". There are five pillars of practice in Islam. Islam is a complete way of life that governs all facets of life: moral, spiritual, social, political, economical, intellectual, etc. Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world. To become Muslim, a person of any race or culture must say a simple statement, the shahadah, that bears witness to the belief in the One God and that Prophet Muhammad was the last prophet of God."Allah" is an Arabic word that means "God". Muslims also believe that "Allah" is the personal name of God. The Islamic concept of God is that He is loving, merciful, and compassionate. But Islam also teaches that He is just and swift in punishment. Nevertheless, Allah once said to Prophet Muhammad, "My mercy prevails over my wrath." Islam teaches a balance between fear and hope, protecting one from both complacency and despair.

18 1.The middle class is a class of people in the middle of a societal hierarchy.The middle class is the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the working class and upper class. The common measures of what constitutes middle class vary significantly among cultures.The middle class is the most contested of the three categorizations, the broad group of people in contemporary society who fall socio-economically between the lower and upper classes.[26] One example of the contestation of this term is that in the United States "middle class" is applied very broadly and includes people who would elsewhere be considered working class. Middle class workers are sometimes called "white-collar workers".

Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have noted the tendency toward an enlarged middle class in modern Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of an educated work force in technological economies.Perspectives concerning globalization and neocolonialism, such as dependency theory, suggest this is due to the shift of low-level labour to developing nations and the Third World

18.2. Consumer cultures are a part of the economy but are not in themselves an economic system. Rather, consumer culture theory emphasizes the sociological and psychological impacts of buying and spending behavior. The desire to keep up with one's neighbors or economic peers, the belief that purchasing a new gadget or other piece of merchandise will improve quality of life and the emphasis on shopping for leisure are all parts of consumer culture.Consumer culture can help drive the economy by encouraging people to spend money. In consumer-oriented cultures, people see consumer expenses as needs necessary for happiness, and during times of economic recession, this perceived need can encourage consumers to spend. Consumer culture also encourages consumers to view spending as a bonding experience. Shopping with friends or trying on clothes with your mother are examples of the ways in which consumer culture turns buying into a social phenomenon rather than just an economic one.

Informal

The social values present in individuals are products of informal social control, exercised implicitly by a society through particular customs, norms, and mores. Individuals internalize the values of their society, whether conscious or not of the indoctrination. Traditional society relies mostly on informal social control embedded in its customary culture to socialize its members.

Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval, which can cause an individual to stray towards the social norms of the society. In extreme cases sanctions may include social discrimination and exclusion. Informal social control usually has more effect on individuals because the social values become internalized, thus becoming an aspect of the individual's personality.

Informal sanctions check 'deviant' behavior. An example of a negative sanction comes from a scene in the Pink Floyd film 'The Wall,' whereby the young protagonist is ridiculed and verbally abused by a high school teacher for writing poetry in a mathematics class. Another example from the movie 'About a Boy', when a young boy hesitates to jump from a high springboard and is ridiculed for his fear. Though he eventually jumps, his behaviour is controlled by same

Bilet#19

1The Marxist view of social order.At the heart of all social changes ideas and other cultural wealth, and especially economic interests of the main social groups of society lie not. So, as a result of the conflict of classes concerning economic resources the revolutions designating change of socioeconomic structures also come true. In other words, all changes in society and movement of history results from permission of the social conflicts arising between dominating and other classes of society. On the conflict, according to Marx, the social structure is constructed. Thus, it is possible to claim that Marx rejected idea of social consensus according to which the unity of society is based on social solidarity, and claimed that society initially unstably and only thanks to this internal contradiction lives and develops. (В основе всех социальных изменений лежат не идеи и прочие духовные ценности, а сугубо экономические интересы основных социальных групп общества. Так, в результате конфликта классов по поводу экономических ресурсов и свершаются революции, обозначающие смену общественно-экономических формаций. Другими словами, все изменения в обществе и движение истории происходит в результате разрешения социальных конфликтов, возникающих между господствующим и другими классами общества. Именно на конфликте, по мнению Маркса, построена социальная структура. Таким образом, можно утверждать, что Маркс отвергал идею социального консенсуса, согласно которой единство общества зиждется на социальной солидарности, и утверждал, что общество изначально нестабильно и только благодаря этому внутреннему противоречию живёт и развивается.)

2The area of study in sociology Object of studying of sociology is society. This main object of sociology acts as objectively existing reality which isn't depending on the researcher. Society is considered as historically developed big, steady community of the people connected among themselves by various bonds which shape is defined first of all by set of the relations between certain individuals, groups.

Subject of studying of sociology

Society represents a subject of studying of many sciences, they and are called — social sciences as study processes, the phenomena in one way or another connected with society, its existence by development. This results from the fact that unlike object of studying of any science the subject is allocated from object with the researcher.

The social sphere is studied by a number of sciences, each of which has the object of research. It is important to be able to distinguish a sociology object of research from objects of research of other behavioural sciences. So, as psychology it is necessary to consider as a subject of studying of such behavioural science consciousness of the individual and his mentality. Therefore, we can tell that the psychology studies the personality, instead of groups.

Subject of studying of social psychology — the interpersonal relations between representatives of human society. The area of studying of this science is most close to area of learning of sociology and is concentrated, first of all, on small groups.

The social anthropology studies formation of the person as social being, member of social communities. Sources of formation of a civilization, emergence of culture and human relations are thus studied.

Thus, the sociology studies the modern structured society and difficult interrelations between members of such society, lying through various social institutes.

Religious movement and world religions There is a great deal of crossover between the great religions of the world. In large part, for example, Christianity is derived from the Judaic tradition, while Islamic owes much to the rise of Christianity. Between them they dominate the European landmass, particularly the various forms of Christianity. Christianity is dominate too in North and South America. Islam dominates much of Africa either side of the Sahara, and the Middle East, as well as significant parts of Central Asia (Pakistan, Afghanistan) and Indonesia. In China dominant religions are Confucianism and Taoism and in the Far East, Buddhism and Shintoism. Hinduism dominates in India with Sikhism preponderant in the Punjab.The five great religions of the world are Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.

20.1. Sociology, in the broadest sense, is the study of society. Sociology is a very broad discipline that examines how humans interact with each other and how human behavior is shaped by social structures (groups, communities, organizations), social categories (age, sex, class, race, etc.), and social institutions (politics, religion, education, etc.). The basic foundation of sociology is the belief that a person's attitudes, actions, and opportunities are shaped by all of these aspects of society. The sociological perspective is fourfold: Individuals belong to groups; groups influence our behavior; groups take on characteristics that are independent of their members (i.e. the whole is greater than the sum of its parts); and sociologists focus on behavior patterns of groups, such as differences based on sex, race, age, class, etc.

SOCIAL ORDER According to Durkheim, social facts (or social phenomena or forces) are the subject matter of sociology. Social facts are sui generis, and must be studied distinct from biological and psychological phenomenon. They can be defined as patterns of behavior that are capable of exercising some coercive power upon individuals. They are guides and controls of conduct that are external to the individual in the form of group norms, mores and folkways. Through socialization and education these rules become internalized in the consciousness of the individual. These social constraints and guides become moral obligations to obey social rules.

The central issue in Durkheim's work concerns the source of social order and disorder. According to Durkheim, the desires and self-interests of human beings can only be held in check by forces that originate outside of the individual. "The more one has, the more one wants, since satisfactions received only stimulate instead of filling needs." Durkheim characterizes this external force as a collective conscience, a common social bond that is expressed by the ideas, values, norms, beliefs and ideologies of the culture, institutionalized in the social structure, and internalized by individual members of the culture

Primary socialisation (or primary socialization) in sociology is the acceptance and learning of a set of norms and values established through the process of socialization. Typically this is initiated by the family.

Primary socialisation occurs during childhood and is when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

Bilet#21

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