The Bodrum Castle

The most prominent feature of Bodrum must be the Castle of St. Peter. Whether entering the town by land or sea, one cannot help but be struck by the Castle's sturdy presence. One of the world's best preserved monuments from medieval times, it stands as a solid testament to the Bodrum area as a place worth defending.

The Castle's origins go back to the Knights of St. John, a group of expatriates who drew their ranks from Europe. This "Order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem" began in the Eleventh Century with a church and hospital set up for pilgrims in Jerusalem. The hospital operated under the strict code that care be denied to no one, although those who did not belong to the Catholic faith were confined to a separate ward.

The order began with solely religious powers and functions, but the Crusades and other political events forced it into military pursuits. The Christians beliefs of the order took on a fanatical nature, and the Knights thought of themselves as soldiers of Christ and defenders of the Holy Places of Jerusalem. The Order enjoyed numerous battle successes during the Crusades, gaining many rich donations and Papal favors in the process.

The Knights were composed of seven different Languages or Tongues, so called because of language differences. They came from France, Italy, Spain, England, Germany and Provence and Auvergne (both now provinces of France). Each of these pious Catholic groups operated under the leadership of a knight of their own country.

The Castle's origins go back to the Knights of St. John, a group of expatriates who drew their ranks from Europe.

The Order classified its members as either Knights, Serving Brothers or Chaplains, all under the command of the Grand Master (who was elected for life). The Knights were all of noble birth and served the Order without pay. At their deaths they routinely left all their possessions to the Order.

In 1309 the Knights formed their own community and government headquarters on the island of Rhodes. This was an ideal base for operations because of its position between the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas.

The Order did not require the presence of each knight at all times, and some spent time in Europe at their estates (many of them were wealthy) or on duty at various hospitals along the pilgrim routes. However, if they were needed to defend the island headquarters, they were required to return as soon as possible.

fter erecting a castle on the island of Cos, the Knights needed a stronghold on the mainland of Asia Minor. In 1374 they acquired Symrna (where the city of Izmir now stands), which a league of Christian powers had conquered earlier from the Seljuks and built a castle there. The Mongol leader Tamerlane had his hordes destroy this edifice in 1402, however, starting off a century-long struggle between the Knights and the Ottoman Turks.

The search for a new site led the Knights to a small island set between two sheltered bays, (water once completely surrounded the Castle). Ruins showed evidence of an ancient castle, now known to have been erected during Doric Times (1110 BC), as well as a small Turkish castle from the 11th CAD. Just 1 km to the north stood one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Tomb of King Mausolus (now called The Mausoleum) reduced to ruins by an earthquake.

In an area where successive groups of people have lived for thousands of years, each new group tends to use building materials left behind by previous inhabitants. The careful observer walking through the backstreets of Bodrum will see many old houses with ancient blocks and column pieces embedded in their walls.

Not ones to waste useful building materials themselves, the Knights instructed their builders to remove any usable portions from the Tomb of King Mausolus when Castle construction began in 1402. Much of the Mausoleum was built with a green colored rock, pieces of which now adorn the Castle walls. Visitors can also see column bases in the sides of several towers. In 1846, Sir Stratford Canning, British Ambassador to Istanbul, took from the Castle 12 marble reliefs depicting the battle between the Greek and the Amazons (which the Knights took from the Mausoleum) and sent them to London.

The Vatican attached great importance to the building of the Castle and send Christians to work there. In 1409 the Papal Office issued a decree that all those who assisted in the construction would receive a guaranteed reservation in Heaven.

German Architect Heinrich Schlegelholt supervised construction of the Castle, seeing to it that it incorporated the latest in castle design. The French had developed the art of cannon foundry by this time, so gun embrasures were built along the top of the Castle's walls, especially those facing landward. The Crusaders had a powerful fleet of warships, so they had little fear of attack from the sea (the walls facing the mainland were also built much thicker than those facing the sea). Also, the Knights decided a second and third line of defense were necessary, resulting in a more complicated moat system than that of most castles.

astle construction continued throughout the 15th Century, with the first walls completed by 1437. The Chapel, (which still stands in its original place inside the Castle) was one of the first completed structures. The Knights also built a watchtower overlooking the bay from a hill opposite the Castle, the remains of which stand, sporting a Turkish flag, above the present-day Turkish military resort.

In the inner Castle, wide areas were excavated in the natural rock to from cisterns for collecting rainwater (including the one under the chapel there are 14). These cisterns, some of which are still in use, supplied the Knights with water when the Castle was under siege.

The Knights began referring to the town as Mesy, unaware of its ancient name, and the new Castle of St. Peter soon became the Knights' most important position outside Rhodes. In conjunction with the castle of Antimahia on the island of Cos, it oversaw the most heavily used shipping route of the day.

In 1409 the Papal Office issued a decree that all those who assisted in the construction would receive a guaranteed reservation in Heaven.

The fortress became known as the Castle of St. Peter The Liberator because it served as the sole place of refuge for all Christians on the west coast of Asia Minor. The Knights kept a special breed of dog in the Castle, who could track down refugees and bring them to safety, much like the famous St. Bernard.

Life in the Castle was rather slow in between battles, so the Knights had plenty of time to adorn the walls with hundreds of coats of arms and carved reliefs. Coats of arms were first used by the Crusaders during their conquest of Jerusalem. The heat of the Middle East made it impossible to fight with their normal heavy armor, so the Knights, like their Muslim Foes, emblazoned their surcoats and shields with colorful symbols.

The various coats of arms spread throughout the Castle have lost the brilliant colors they once wore, making it more difficult to identify who or what they once stood for. The arms in general show lions, dragons, crosses and horizontal and vertical bands. Each knight had his own design, and others signified certain countries, religious figures, Castle commandants and grand masters of the Order. A total of 249 separate designs remain.

ther historical records have helped to identify most of these symbols. For example, above each of the seven gates in the Castle lie the arms of several known knights and grand masters, while the Royal Arms of France adorn the north wall of the inner moat. Religious motifs were also included, such as one on a high western wall depicting the Virgin Mary and the Apostle Peter holding the keys of Heaven to his breast.

For over a century the Castle of St. Peter served as an integral stronghold in the Knights' community. The Ottoman Empire continued to grow, however, and in 1453 Mehmet II, Sultan of Turkey, conquered Constantinople and announced his aggressive intentions towards the Knights' holdings. The Knights resisted his attack, however, as well as another in 1480.

By 1521, Turkish leader Sьleyman the Magnificent was ready to challenge the Order's headquarters in Rhodes. After an exchange of letters with Grand Master Fabrico del Carretto war was declared. In June 1522, 200.000 Turkish soldiers gathered in the Bay of Marmaris. The Knights withstood the siege for six months, but were forced to surrender in January 1523. The Castle of St. Peter soon followed.

Sultan Sьleyman spared the Knights' lives and they sailed to the island of Crete. In 1530 Charles V, Emperor of Austria, Spain and Sicily, gave the Mediterranean island of Malta to the Knights. Napoleon Bonaparte chased them away in 1798, and the order then dissolved. It was revived in England in 1831, however, and at present still carries out its mission as a first aid organization, independent from any government, in more than 30 countries. The Pope approved new legislation for the order in 1961.

The Castle underwent several different uses under Turkish care. In the 17th Century villagers erected several houses within the Castle. In the Greek revolt of 1824 the Turks used it and the town as a military base. Later in the 19th Century Turkish builders installed a public bath and converted the chapel to a mosque by adding a minaret. And in 1895, the Castle was fortified and used as a prison.

In the First World War a French warship fired on the Castle, damaging several towers and toppling the minaret. After the war the Italians, who occupied the Anatolian shore from Kusadasi to Antalya, put a garrison in the Castle. They also repaired the Italian and French towers and tried to establish good relations with Turkey. When it became obvious that the war of independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatьrk would be won by the Turks, the Italians withdrew in 1921.

Turkish government decided to use it as a storeroom for underwater findings from several recent shipwreck excavations.

The Castle stood empty for almost 40 years, until the Turkish government decided to use it as a storeroom for underwater findings from several recent shipwreck excavations. The government soon decided these findings were worthy of a separate museum, and what better place for it than the Castle itself?

Oguz Alpцzen first came to the museum in 1962 as an archaeology student, and in 1968 he became its first official staff underwater archaeologist. Since 1978 he has served as Director of the castle and in an interview he emphasized that the Castle museum holds a lot more of interest than might first meet the eye.

"We have many, many things to see here," Alpцzen said. "I think the first-time visitor tends to over look a lot of it."

One feature often overlooked is the careful selection of plant life flourishing in the inner garden. The collection represents nearly every plant and tree of the Mediterranean region, including many with mythological significance. The Myrtle, for example, was the holy tree of the Goddess Aphrodite, while the Plane tree's shadow was considered healthinducing by kings and nobility. Plant enthusiasts might also recognize the rare Mandrake, once used for its anaesthetic properties. A wide variety of flowers, cacti and other trees round out the living display.

"We also have many doves, the bird dedicated to Aphrodite, as well as fourth generation peacocks" Alpцzen said. He explained that wealthy people of ancient times were quite fond of peacocks, often adopting them as personal symbols. But the main purpose of the museum is to display a wide range of fascinating underwater findings; many brought to modern day viewers from thousands of years ago. Ninety percent of the museum's holdings come from the sea (the rest are land findings from the Bodrum area), and they are spread throughout the Castle in a myriad of atmospheric halls and galleries. The Chapel, for instance, now houses the Bronze Age Hall, full of findings from around 2500 BC. The first floor of the Italian Tower houses the Coin and Jewelry Hall, a wide collection spanning many centuries. (Also, two art galleries display the works of modern Turkish artists, and the northern moat is used as a theatre during the Bodrum festival.) Alpцzen has published a book in English (separate form a Turkish edition), called "Bodrum, Ancient Halicarnassus", that gives a complete description of the Castle's contents. It is available in the bookstore under the main mosque in town.

One of the most recent openings in the Castle demonstrates how ancient history is a part of daily life in Bodrum. In digging foundations for a new house up by the main highway, a tomb was discovered containing the remains of a Carian princess dating from between 360 and 325 BC. A spectacular find of major importance, the skeletal remains were found draped in fold appliqued clothing and adorned in gold jewelry including crown, bracelets, rings and necklace. The well-preserved state of the remains has allowed a British team of specialists to reconstruct the skull and facial features of this ancient noblewoman. In honor of this important find the Bodrum Castle opened a private hall devoted exclusively to the display of the Carian princess and her artifacts.

nderwater excavations are continuing in the Bodrum area, funded and operated by an American- based archaeological group. Students also come from around the world to assist and learn the intricacies of underwater excavation and preservation.

Currently the group is at work on several projects including restoration of an 11th Century shipwreck and another from the Ottoman Empire. Both of these will be on display within two or three years Alpцzen said.

He added that during peak months (May to October) the museum receives about 1,000 visitors per day. This number should increase in response to other new attractions coming to the Castle, such as the opening of a dungeon used by the Knights, as well as a fully functional Turkish bath.

DIDYMA-DiDiM

Also called DIDYMI, or BRANCHIDAE, ancient sanctuary and seat of an oracle of Apollo, located south of Miletus in modern Turkey. Before being plundered and burned by the Persians (c. 494 BC), the sanctuary was in the charge of the Branchids, a priestly caste named after Branchus, a favorite youth of Apollo. After Alexander the Great conquered Miletus (334), the oracle was re sanctified; the city administered the cult, annually electing a prophet. About 300 BC the Milesians began to build a new temple, intended to be the largest in the Greek world. The annual festival held there, the Didymeia, became Panhellenic in the beginning of the 2nd century BC. Excavations made between 1905 and 1930 revealed all of the uncompleted new temple and some carved pieces of the earlier temple and statues.

Made a township in 1991, Didyma is a peninsula surrounded by the provincial limits of Mugla and the Akbьk cove in the east, the Aegean Sea in the south and west and the lake Bafa and the river Meander in the north. It is located 106 km from Aydin, 53 km from Sцke, 73 km from Kusadasi, and 110 km from Bodrum. The number of its inhabitants is 10.400 according to the census of 1990, and its area 300 km²

Didyma possesses a bed capacity of 15.000 in 200 facilities either certified by the Ministry or by the Municipality. There are a lot of invaluable historical sites, ruins, ancient cities and recreational facilities by the seaside in and around Didyma which make the region a world-known tourism center. This shows that Didyma is a town of history, legends and nature with the Dilek peninsula on one side and the Meander delta and the Dilek peninsula on one side and the Meander delta and the take Bafa on the take Bafa on the other. Having a coastal line of 60 km Diduma further has hundreds of coves.

Didyma is an ideal holiday resort for those who like aquatics. fishing, trekking, youth and student tourism, hunting, healthcare, historical works, sea sun and nature. The colors created by the setting by the setting sun over the sea at Altinkum are not those that can be seen elsewhere. You can enjoy with much satisfaction that moment with a goblet of drink at any restaurant by the seaside.

Altinkum, Didyma is an excellent resort for those who would seek for the sea, sun and sand. You can have a sun bath on on golden sandy beaches, participate in aquatics in the coves where any kinds of such sports can be performed. When the sun start to set. Altinkum gains a nerdish color. Later than that hour, you can have dinner at hundreds of restaurants that serve the Turkish and various other cuisines from all over the world. And Altinkum, which looks small and quiet awakens in the evening. As the time goes by, you can see that people start dancing and chatting at the bars. If you are unable to slow down in the later hours of the night, you can dance in one of the discos which will entertain you until the morning. That is not all. You can also ride a bicycle to see the bars. If you are unable to slow down in the later hours of the night. You can dance in one of the discos which will entertain you until the morning. That is not al you can also ride a bicycle to see the coves and historical sites around the place. Besides the sea and sun on one side and the endless golden beaches on the other. historical and artistic wonders in everywhere.

The Apollo temple of Didyma (the Didymaion), located within the boundaries of the village of Yeni Hisar in the Sцke district of the province of Aydэn, was known as a sanctuary and seat of an oracle attached to Miletus. Recent excavations revealed remains which showed that Didyma was not only a seat of an oracle but also the site of dense settlement.

The research concerning the origins of the names of Didyma and Didymaion has been a subject of discussion going on for years. Along with several other myths, it was thought that the name Didymaion which meant "twin temples" or "temple of the twins", was related to Artemis, the twin sister of Apollo. However, as no definite evidence could be found, this theory also remained as a myth. With the intensification of work in recent years on the "Sacred Road" connecting Miletus and Didyma, and the finding of the place of the Artemis cult during the excavations however, it was proved that this thesis was riрht. The two temples built for the twin brother and sister, the Artemision and the Didymaion, constitute the origin of the name Didyma.

Apollo and Artemis were closely related to the mother goddess Cybele who had, from prehistoric times, a very important place in Anatolia. The mother goddess Cybele had various names (such as Kubaba, Isis, Hepat, Lat) and epithets according to localities and cultures. The most widespread of these names was Dindymene which was derived from mount Dindymus and which is remarkable for its resemblance to the name Didyma.

The name of Apollo is considered not to be Greek. Apollo, who, because of the resemblance in names was identified with the god Apulunas mentioned in Hittite written sources, represented shape given by rational perception, temperate power, fine arts and light. Besides these, he was renowned for his ability to prophesy, and he communicated to people through mediums and oracles his knowledge of the future.

The dependence of communities on religion increased as it was seen that gods possessed forces to direct according to their will, all phenonema and events relating to nature and society. As a natural consequence of the increase in religion, belief in the power to prophesy of the gods who could foresee events and phenomena was intensified.

In the Archaic period the oracle of Apollo had great fame. The great number of temples erected in Anatolia as seats of oracles is evidence that belief in gods had reached enormous proportions. The most important of the temples dedicated to Apollo were the Temple of Apollo at Delphi in Greece, and the Didymaion in Anatolia. These to seats were in constant rivalry with each other. A fine example of this rivalry can be clearly seen in the following verses by the oracle of Delphi.

In the mid 7th century BC, in the oracles of Apollo, the god could be consulted once a year for official matters, and the answers received to questions directed would be in the form of "yes or "no". When in later years, consulting the god also for private matters became a tradition, these consultations became gradually more frequent. The oracles of Apollo grew very rich as a result of this, and their fame and influence spread over large areas. They became as powerful as the state they were in and were effective in shaping the destinies of persons and communities, and particularly in politics where they played a very important role, they very often caused wrong decisions to be taken.

Pausanias states that the Apollo temple at Didyma had been built before the Greek colonization (10th century BC). It is believed in the light of this that the existence of Didyma, like that of Miletus and Priene goes back to the 2nd millennium BC. However according to the results of excavations and research work undertaken up to the present day, the earliest temple remains date back to the end of the 8th century BC.

One learns from Herodotus that valuable votive offerings were presented to the temple by King Necho of Egypt at the end of the 7th century BC, and King Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC.

It is believed that the construction of the Archaic temple was begun in the mid 6th century BC and was completed at the end of the same century. In the 6th century BC, the Didymaion was administered by a priestly caste named Branchids. During this period which lasted about 100 years, the temple flourished and went through its most brilliant era.

It was completely burned and plundered by the Persians during the battle of Lade, the priests of the temple were driven to Susa, and the cult statue of Apollo was taken to Ecbatana. The statue of Apollo which was dated back to 500 BC, was made by the sculptor Kanachus of Sicyon and reflects Anatolian - Hittite characteristics.

The construction of the Hellenistic temple was begun after the victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians. However, it was understood from the remains that this Hellenistic temple was not completed.

The temple of which the construction was continued under Emperor Caligula (37 - 41 AD) who wanted to be though of as the god of the temple, and later under Hadrian (117 - 138 AD), was never completed. With the alterations made in the 3rd century AD to protect it from plunder, the temple took on the appearance of a fortress, and flourished under the reigns of Aurelian (270 - 275) and Diocletian (284 - 305).

There are findings which indicate that work was done on the temple during the reign of Emperor Julian (361 - 363).

In the beginning of the 5th century AD, Emperor Theodosius had a church built in the sacred courtyard (Adyton - Sekos). This church, which had the appearance of a three - winged basilica, was destroyed in an earthquake and later rebuilt with one wing (9th century AD).

In the 10th century AD, the two - columned hall (Chresmographeion - hall of the oracle) and the pronaos, which were used as storage areas, were greatly damaged in a fire, and most of the marble turned into lime.

After the Seljuks and the Mongols conquered the region the temple was completely abandoned.

An Italian traveler who visited Didyma in 1446 records that the whole temple was standing, however at the end of the 15th century the temple was completely destroyed by an earthquake and turned into a heap of marble. In later years the temple was used as a quarry, and many of its architectural elements were used as building material in the construction of dwellings and other buildings by the local people.

EXCAVATIONS

The first excavations in Didyma were made in 1858 by the English under the direction of Newton. The area excavated was the Sacred Road.

In the temple, excavations were first begun in 1872 by the French under O Rayet and A Thomas. The aim was to find the cult statue of Apollo, but at the end of the work which lasted two years, the cult statue had not been found. However, it had been possible to determine the dimensions of the temple and to reconstruct its plan.

In the excavations of 1895 - 96, again undertaken by the French, the work, supervised by B Haussoullier and E Pontremoli, was concentrated on the northern part of the temple. These excavations were stopped shortly after due to economic reasos. Excavations begun in 1905 for the museums in Berlin under the supervision of Th. Weigand, were continued on a systematic basis until the year 1937. During this time a great portion of the temple was revealed. After this date, excavations were interrupted and work on publication of the results was begun.

In order find solutions to certain problems concerning the temple and its surroundings, excavations were begun again in 1962, this time for the German Institute of Archaeology, under the supervision of R Naumann. When R Naumann left, the excavations in Didyma were continued under the supervision of Klaus Tuchelt. Work is at present still going on in the area with special attention to research on the Sacred Road.

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