After text activity. Exercise 1.Read and memorize using a dictionary: District heating, cogeneration, footprints, instantaneous

I. Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

District heating, cogeneration, footprints, instantaneous, grid demand, thermal stores, sewage, waste heat, excess, renewable,stockage, round trip efficiency,whilst, borehole cluster, pit storage, borehole cluster, district heating network, fjord, outfall, sewage treatment, outfall, boost up, raw sewage, scrubbing working fluid, deploy, chill,energy carrier, breakdown, waste heat  

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) How is the heat often obtained?

2) What can district heating plants provide?

3) What do heat sources in use for various district heating systems include?

4) What is waste heat from nuclear power plants sometimes used for?

Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right: 1b,2a,3d,4c.

1. Use of solar heat for district heating has been increasing	a) for district heating networks.
2. Industrial heat pumps are credible heat sources	b) in Denmark and Germany in recent years.
3. Recent technical advances allow the use of natural heat pump refrigerants	c) is very energy efficient.
4. The combination of cogeneration and district heating	d) that have very low global warming potential (GWP).

Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the write words:

Use of solar(heat/warmth)for district heating has been (increasing/growing) in Denmark and Germany in recent years. The systems usually (include/involve) interseasonal thermal energy storage for a (consistent/compatible) heat output day to day and between summer and winter.

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Learn the definitions: District heating; geothermal heating system; solar heating; waste heat recovery.

District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating and water heating.  

A heating system that harnesses the heat energy produced by the earth underground is an example of a geothermal heating system.  

solar heating (Miscellaneous Technologies / Building) heat radiation from the sun collected by heat-absorbing panels through which water is circulated: used for domestic hot water, central heating, and heating swimming pools

waste heat recovery The use of heat that is produced in a thermodynamic cycle, as in a furnace, combustion engine, etc, in another process, such as heating feedwater or air

Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question: ______________________________________________?

Answer: District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements such as space heating and water heating.

2) Question: ______________________________________________?

Answer:Waste heat from nuclear power plants is sometimes used for district heating.

3) Question: ______________________________________________?

Answer: Industrial heat pumps are credible heat sources for district heating networks.

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: of; systems; with; in;

The core element 1 many district heating 2 is as a heat-only boiler station. Additionally a cogeneration plant (also called combined heat and power, CHP) is often added in parallel 3 the boilers. Both have 4 common that they are typically based on combustion of primary energy carriers.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“ District heating ”

“ Heat sources in use for various district heating systems ”

“ Renewable electrical energy ”

Lesson 12

Read the text: Energy conservation and audits.

Energy conservation refers to reducing energy through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.

Even though energy conservation reduces energy services, it can result in increased financial capital, environmental quality, national security, and personal financial security. It is at the top of the sustainable energy hierarchy.

Some countries employ energy or carbon taxes to motivate energy users to reduce their consumption. As detailed in the book, Green Illusions, carbon taxes can allow consumption to shift to nuclear power and other alternatives that carry a different set of environmental side effects and limitations. Meanwhile, taxes on all energy consumption stand to reduce energy use across the board, while reducing a broader array of environmental consequences arising from energy production. The State of California employs a tiered energy tax whereby every consumer receives a baseline energy allowance that carries a low tax. As usage increases above that baseline, the tax increases dramatically. Such programs aim to protect poorer households while creating a larger tax burden for high energy consumers.

One of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings is to use an energy audit. An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy use and flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). This is normally accomplished by trained professionals and can be part of some of the national programs discussed above. In addition, recent development of smart phone apps enable homeowners to complete relatively sophisticated energy audits themselves.

Building technologies and smart meters can allow energy users, business and residential, to see graphically the impact their energy use can have in their workplace or homes. Advanced real-time energy metering is able to help people save energy by their actions. In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active heating systems, it doesn't involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.

The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be retrofitted.

In the United States, suburban infrastructure evolved during an age of relatively easy access to fossil fuels, which has led to transportation-dependent systems of living. Zoning reforms that allow greater urban density as well as designs for walking and bicycling can greatly reduce energy consumed for transportation. The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day.

Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. The research one must put into conserving energy often is too time consuming and costly when there are cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels. Some governments and NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are attempting to reduce this complexity with eco labels that make differences in energy efficiency easy to research while shopping.

To provide the kind of information and support people need to invest money, time and effort in energy conservation, it is important to understand and link to people's topical concerns. For instance, some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. However, health studies have demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigueand worker error all generally increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail settings. It has been shown that natural delighting increases productivity levels of workers, while reducing energy consumption.

An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s).

When the object of study is an occupied building then reducing energy consumption while maintaining or improving human comfort, health and safety are of primary concern. Beyond simply identifying the sources of energy use, an energy audit seeks to prioritize the energy uses according to the greatest to least cost effective opportunities for energy savings.

A home energy audit is a service where the energy efficiency of a house is evaluated by a person using professional equipment (such as blower doors and infrared cameras), with the aim to suggest the best ways to improve energy efficiency in heating and cooling the house.

An energy audit of a home may involve recording various characteristics of the building envelope including the walls, ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and skylights. For each of these components the area and resistance to heat flow (R-value) is measured or estimated. The leakage rate or infiltration of air through the building envelope is of concern, both of which are strongly affected by window construction and quality of door seals such as weather stripping. The goal of this exercise is to quantify the building's overall thermal performance. The audit may also assess the efficiency, physical condition, and programming of mechanical systems such as the heating, ventilation, air conditioning equipment, and thermostat.

A home energy audit may include a written report estimating energy use given local climate criteria, thermostat settings, roof overhang, and solar orientation. This could show energy use for a given time period, say a year, and the impact of any suggested improvements per year. The accuracy of energy estimates are greatly improved when the homeowner's billing history is available showing the quantities of electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, or other energy sources consumed over a one or two-year period.

Some of the greatest effects on energy use are user behavior, climate, and age of the home. An energy audit may therefore include an interview of the homeowners to understand their patterns of use over time. The energy billing history from the local utility company can be calibrated using heating degree day and cooling degree day data obtained from recent, local weather data in combination with the thermal energy model of the building. Advances in computer-based thermal modeling can take into account many variables affecting energy use.

A home energy audit is often used to identify cost effective ways to improve the comfort and efficiency of buildings. In addition, homes may qualify for energy efficiency grants from central government.

Recently, the improvement of smart phone technology has enabled homeowners to perform relatively sophisticated energy audits of their own homes. This technique has been identified as a method to accelerate energy efficiency improvements.

Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

Mileage; national security; sustainable; carbon taxes; tiered energy tax; baseline energy allowance;tax burden; smart phone apps; retrofit; NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations); eco labels; fatigue;retail settings; prioritize; skylights; weather stripping; roof overhang; calibrate.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) Why do some countries employ energy or carbon taxes?

2) What is one of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings?

3) What have health studies demonstrated?

4) When is the accuracy of energy estimates greatly improved?

Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. Energy conservation refers to reducing energy	a) efficient energy use.
2. Energy conservation differs from	b) through using less of an energy service.
3. One of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings is	c) user behavior, climate, and age of the home.
4. Some of the greatest effects on energy use are	d) to use an energy audit.

Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

An energy audit is an (inspection /examination) and analysis of energy(use/waste)and flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to (reduce/ enlarge) the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s).

I. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Learn the definitions: conservation of energy; carbon tax; energy audit.

conservation of energy   The principle that the total energy of any isolated system is constant and independent of any changes occurring within the system  

carbon tax   A tax on the emissions caused by the burning of coal, gas, and oil, aimed at reducing the production of greenhouse gases.  

energy audit   An evaluation of energy consumption, as in a home or business, to determine ways in which energy can be conserved.  

Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate.

2) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: A home energy audit is often used to identify cost effective ways to improve the comfort and efficiency of buildings.

3) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: Building technologies and smart meters can allow energy users, business and residential, to see graphically the impact their energy use can have in their workplace or homes.

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: to; from; of; with.

Energy conservation refers 1 reducing energy through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs 2 efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example 3 energy conservation. Driving the same amount 4 a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“Energy conservation”

“Energy audit”

Lesson 13

Read the text: Modeling and study of the processes in the heat

In physics and chemistry, heat is energy in transfer between a system and its surroundings other than by work or transfer of matter. The transfer can occur in two simple ways, conduction, and radiation and in a more complicated way called convective circulation. Heat is not a property or component or constituent of a body itself.

It can occur that the surroundings of a system can be described also as a second thermodynamic system that has its own definite temperature. In this special circumstance, if the two are connected by a pathway for heat transfer, then, according to the second law of thermodynamics, heat flow occurs spontaneously from the hotter to the colder system. Consequently, in this circumstance, heat is transfer of energy due purely to temperature gradient or difference. It is accompanied by an increase in the total entropy of system and surroundings.

In a heat engine, which operates in a cyclic process, internal energy of bodies is harnessed to provide useful work, heat being supplied from a hot reservoir, always with an associated discharge of waste heat to a cold reservoir. Through an arrangement of systems and devices, which operate in a cyclic process, called a heat pump, externally supplied work can be used to transfer internal energy indirectly from a cold to a hot body, but such a transfer cannot occur directly between the bodies, without the heat pump.

Transfers of energy as heat are macroscopic processes. Kinetic theory explains them as the microscopic motions and interactions of microscopic constituents such as molecules and photons. It explains heat flow as occurring when the more rapidly moving or strongly excited molecules in a high-temperature body transfer some of their energy, other than by work or bulk transfer of matter, to the less energized molecules in a lower temperature body. Thus heat flow is said to be a diffusive, as distinct from a bulk flow, transfer of internal energy, driven purely by temperature difference.

The SI unit of heat is the joule. Heat can be measured by calorimeters, or determined by calculations based on other quantities, relying on the first law of thermodynamics. In calorimetry, the concepts of latent heat and of sensible heat are used. Latent heat produces changes of state without temperature change, while sensible heat produces temperature change without change of state.

Heat in physics is defined as energy transferred between a system and its surroundings other than by work or transfer of matter. The surroundings of a thermodynamic system are in themselves a physical system, but the surroundings that directly contact the indicated thermodynamic system may or may not themselves consist of properly defined thermodynamic systems. A physical system may for example be so turbulent that it is not feasible to define its temperature. A properly defined thermodynamic system has a temperature that indicates how hot or cold it is.

Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter to a colder closed system. When two closed systems come into thermal contact, they exchange energy through the microscopic interactions of their particles. When the systems are at different temperatures, the result is a spontaneous net flow of energy that continues until the temperatures are equal. At that point the net flow of energy is zero, and the systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium. It is also permitted to say that heat can pass spontaneously, by conduction and radiation, from a physical system that does not have a temperature, to a thermodynamic system. Spontaneous heat transfer is an irreversible process.

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the internal energy of an isolated system is conserved. To change the internal energy of a system, energy must be transferred to or from the system. For a closed system, heat and work are the mechanisms by which energy can be transferred. For an open system, internal energy can be changed also by transfer of matter. Work performed by a closed system is, by definition, an energy transfer from the system that is due to a change to its external or mechanical parameters, such as the volume, magnetization, and location of center of mass in a gravitational field.

When energy is transferred to a body purely as heat, its internal energy increases. The additional internal energy becomes indistinguishable from the general pool of internal energy of the body.

As described by kinetic theory, internal energy is present microscopically in a body as kinetic and potential energy of its microscopic particles, such as molecules, atoms and electrons. Such energy is also described by the presence of phonons.

In the kinetic theory, heat is explained in terms of the microscopic motions and interactions of constituent particles, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules. Heat transfer arises from temperature gradients or differences, through the diffuse exchange of microscopic kinetic and potential particle energy, by particle collisions and other interactions. An early and vague expression of this was made by Francis Bacon. Precise and detailed versions of it were developed in the nineteenth century.

Reading Exercises:

Exercise 1. Read and memorize using a dictionary:

Consequently, pathway; latent heat; sensible heat; feasible; irreversible process; indistinguishable;  

Exercise 2. Answer the questions:

1) What is heat in physics and chemistry?

2) How can heat be measured or determined?

3) What does latent heat produce?

4) What does sensible heat produce?

Exercise 3. Match the left part with the right:

1. The transfer can occur in two simple ways,	a) interactions of microscopic constituents such as molecules and photons.
2. Kinetic theory explains them as the microscopic motions and	b) conduction, and radiation and in a more complicated way called convective circulation.
3. In the kinetic theory, heat is explained in terms of	c) its internal energy increases.
4. When energy is transferred to a body purely as heat,	d) the microscopic motions and interactions of constituent particles, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules.

Exercise 4. Open brackets choosing the right words:

Transfers of energy as heat are macroscopic processes. Kinetic theory (explains/ interprets) them as the microscopic motions and interactions of microscopic (constituents/components) such as molecules and photons.

II. Speaking Exercises:

Exercise 1. Learn the definitions: heat; conduction; radiation.

Heatis the form of energy that flows between two samples of matter due to their difference in temperature. Usually denoted by the variable 'Q'.

Conduction -the transfer of heat between two parts of a stationary system, caused by a temperature difference between the parts.  

Radiation -the process in which energy is emitted as particles or waves.

Exercise 2. Ask questions to the given answers:

1) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter to a colder closed system.

2) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: Latent heat produces changes of state without temperature change.

3) Question: ___________________________________________?

Answer: Sensible heat produces temperature change without change of state.

III. Writing exercises:

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the suggested words: in; between; of; system;

Heat 1 physics is defined as energy transferred 2 a system and its surroundings other than by work or transfer 3 matter. The surroundings of a thermodynamic 4 are in themselves a physical system, but the surroundings that directly contact the indicated thermodynamic system may or may not themselves consist of properly defined thermodynamic systems.

Exercise 2. Compose a story on one of the topics (up to 100 words):

“ Heat is energy in transfer between a system and its surroundings ”

Lesson 14

Read the text: Innovative technologies in power engineering: heating.

HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as in HACR (such as the designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).

HVAC is important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers and in marine environments such as aquariums, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, and many others.

The invention of the components of HVAC systems went hand-in-handwith the industrial revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are constantly introduced by companies and inventors worldwide. The three central functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are interrelated, especially with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room air distribution.

The starting point in carrying out an estimate both for cooling and heating depends on the exterior climate and interior specified conditions. However before taking up the heat load calculation, it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization is an important consideration.

Although HVAC is executed in individual buildings or other enclosed spaces (e.g. think NORAD's underground headquarters), the equipment involved is in some cases an extension of a larger district heating (DH) or district cooling (DC) network, or a combined DHC network. In such cases, the operating and maintenance aspects are simplified and metering is necessary to bill for the energy that is consumed, and in some cases energy that is returned to the larger system. (For example, in a DHC network at a given time a building may be utilizing chilled water for air conditioning, but the warm water it returns may be utilized by another building for heating or the overall DH portion of the DHC network, likely with energy added to boost the temperature.)

Basing HVAC on a larger network helps provide an economy of scale that is often not possible for individual buildings, for utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar heat, winter's cold, the cooling potential in some places of lakes or seawater for free cooling, and the enabling function of seasonal thermal energy storage.

The HVAC industry is a worldwide enterprise, with roles including operation and maintenance, system design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and research. The HVAC industry was historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC equipment, but regulating and standards organizations such as HARDI, ASHRAE, SMACNA, ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Mechanical Code, and AMCA have been established to support the industry and encourage high standards and achievement.

A heater is an object that emits heat or causes another body to achieve a higher temperature. In a household or domestic setting, heaters are usually appliances whose purpose is to generate heating (i.e. warmth). Other types of heaters are Ovens and Furnaces.

Heaters exists for all states of matter, including solids, liquids and gases. There are 3 types of heat transfer: convection, conduction and radiation.

The opposite of a heater (for warmth) is an air cooler (for cold) used to keep the user cooler than the temperature originally surrounding them.

There are many different types of heating systems. Central heating is often used in cool climates to heat houses and public buildings. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to warm water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home or a mechanical room in a large building. The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as hydronics. These systems also contain either duct work for forced air systems or piping to distribute a heated fluid to radiators to transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this context is misleading since most heat transfer from the heat exchanger is by convection, not radiation. The radiators may be mounted on walls or installed within the floor to give floor heat.

Most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system. This distribution system can be via radiators, convectors (baseboard), hot water coils (hydro-air) or other heat exchangers. The heated water can also supply an auxiliary heat exchanger to supply hot water for bathing and washing.

Warm air systems distribute heated air through duct work systems of supply and return air through metal or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an evaporator coil for air conditioning. The air supply is typically filtered through air cleaners to remove dust and pollen particles.

One type of heat source is electricity, typically heating ribbons made of high resistance wire. This principle is also used for baseboard heaters, and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are often used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump (or reverse heating) systems.

The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s. Heat pumps can extract heat from the exterior air (air source) or from the ground (ground source). Initially, heat pump HVAC systems were used in moderate climates, but with improvements in low temperature operation and reduced loads due to more efficient homes, they are increasing in popularity in other climates. Heat pumps can be air to air, air to water, water to air and water to water systems. Water on the supply side of the heat pump is typically geothermal energy from ground water, either surface water or PEX tubing buried in a trench. Due to the construction of wells and site work, geothermal systems are typically more expensive to purchase and install than conventional heating systems.

The invention of central heating is often credited to the ancient Romans, who installed systems of air ducts called hypocausts in the walls and floors of public baths and private villas.

The use of furnaces, space heaters and boilers as means of indoor heating may result in incomplete combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the outputs are harmful byproducts, most dangerously carbon monoxide which is a tasteless and odorless gas with serious adverse health effects.

Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be lethal at concentrations of 1000 ppm (0.1%). However, at several hundred ppm, carbon monoxide exposure induces headaches, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin in the blood, forming carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the blood's ability to transport oxygen. The primary health concerns associated with carbon monoxide exposure are its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral effects. Carbon monoxide can cause atherosclerosis; the hardening of arteries, and can also trigger heart attacks. Neurologically, carbon monoxide exposure reduces hand to eye coordination, vigilance, and continuous performance. It can also affect time discrimination.

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