Preventive measures

The axiom about the potential dangers of man-made factors

Axiom about the potential dangers of activity – the fundamental postulate is the basis for scientific problems of human security.

Protection against man-made hazards is achieved by improvement of hazards sources.

Any technical system is potentially dangerous.

The technological hazards exist if the daily activity associated with the flows of matter, energy and information in the technosphere exceed thresholds.

The source of man-made hazards are elements of the technosphere.

Technological hazards are localized in space and time.

Technological hazards have a negative effect on people, the environment and elements of the technosphere simultaneously.

Technological hazards impair human health, lead to personal injury, economic loss, and degradation of the environment.

2. Classification of highly toxic substances (HTS)

All harmful substances on the degree of their effect on yhe human are devided into 1-extremely dangerous 2-high-risk 3-moderately dangerous 4-low-hazard
If the air contains a harmful substance, its concentration should not exceed the maximum admissible concentration - milligrams af a harmful substance/1 cubic meter of air.
3. Maximum permissible concentrations, emissions, exposure levels 3) Maximum permissible concentrations, emissions, level of exposure
The maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of hazardous substances in the environment is
defined as the maximum concentration of pollutants in the environment, assigned to a particular
averaging period and the periodic exposure or throughout life, which does not cause harmful impact
on humans and the environment in general.
Standards of MACs are uniform throughout the Republic of Kazakhstan and developed by the
Ministry of Health. In setting standards MPC takes into account two types of indicators of pollution
of nature - the maximum one-time maximum allowable concentration and the daily maximum
allowable concentration. The first determines the degree of a short exposure to harmful substances
on the normal functioning of the human body. Second - the acceptable level of pollution, which in
the longer term effects on the human organism does not cause changes in the state of human health.
4. Physical hazards and their characteristics

Hazards. According to the official standards dangers are divided into:

Physical – moving machinery, elevated levels of pollution and the dust in the work area.

The permissible levels of harmful substances

The Maximum permissible levels (MPL) of noise, vibration, magnetic fields and other adverse physical effects are developed and established by the health authorities of the republic and are measured in decibels. Normal household noise allowed in the 20 decibels, soreness in humans appears with the noise of 90 decibels.
The maximum permissible level of radiation for magnetic fields, electromagnetic radiation, radiation are developed by the Ministry of Health and is measured in micro-roentgen per hour.
The magnetic fields, electromagnetic radiation, radiation exposure also adversely affect the health and the environment. These standards are developed by the Ministry of Health and are measured in micro-roentgen per hour. Division of Radiation Safety of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (ENR) monitors two areas: natural radiation, that is, and terrestrial radiation and artificial radiation, as a result of human activity.
Partly a matter of normalization of the maximum permissible level of radiation is provided in the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On the use of atmospheric energy", adopted on 14 April 1997 and the Law "On radiation safety".
The maximum permissible levels (MPL) of chemical use in agriculture – maximum norm for agrochemicals in agriculture and forestry determined with regard to pesticides, mineral fertilizers, chemical protection and stimulates plant growth.

6. Environmental Passport of an industrial enterprise. Environmental Passport of an enterprise is a standard - technical document that includes data on the use of resources by company, expressed through a system of indicators, and on detection of its impacts on the environment.

The basis for development of ecological passports are key indicators of production, the resolution on the nature management, passports for gas and water treatment plants and installation of recycling and waste management, forms of state statistical reports and other documents.

In accordance with applicable law, the company must evaluate their efforts to use natural resources and the impact on the environment, planning and implementation of environmental activities under the control of local administration bodies and Ministry of Natural Resources.

Environmental Passport is developed by an enterprise at the expense of its funds and by the manager of the company in consultation with local authorities and the territorial authority of Ministry of Natural Resources, where it is registered.

7. Environmental Assessment. Basic principles of the environmental impact assessment.

Environmental Assessment. Basic principles of the environmental impact assessment.

Another function of the state management in the field of ecology is to conduct environmental impact assessment. In the existing legislation organization and legal regulation of environmental impact assessment is highlighted in the chapter 11 of the Law "On Environmental Protection" (now Ecological Code), and 18 March 1997 adopted the Law "On Environmental Assessment".

This law regulates social relations in the field of environmental assessment in order to prevent the negative impact of administrative, economic and other activities on the environment, life and health of the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In this Law the environmental assessment is defined as a confirmation that the planned economic and other activities correspond to environmental requirements and determination of the admissibility of the object to implement environmental assessment in order to prevent possible adverse impact of

the activity on the environment and associated social, economic and other consequences of the

implementation of the object of environmental examination. Basic principles of environmental impact assessment:

• presumption of potential environmental danger of any economic or other activities;

• mandatory of state environmental assessment before making decisions on the

implementation of the object of environmental expertise;

• the complexity of assessing the impact of economic and other activities on the

environment;

• independent experts of environmental expertise in carrying out their responsibilities;

• scientific validity, objectivity and legitimacy of the conclusions of environmental impact

assessment;

• transparency, participation of public organizations (associations), responsiveness to public

opinion;

• responsibility of parties for environmental impact assessment for its quality.

8. The Law of the RK "On Ecological Assessment ". Two types of environmental impact assessment

The RK Law "On Environmental Assessment" gives them the following rights:

• create eco-expert commissions and groups and other groups, to involve qualified local and

foreign experts and scholars, legal entities on a contractual basis;

• oversee the work of expert units;

• lead the advice of environmental expertise, organize their activities;

• Identify methods of examination;

• sign an ecological expertise;

• request additional materials needed for the examination;

• reject given the environmental review materials that do not meet the necessary standards

and regulations;

• other powers in accordance with the law.

The RK Law "On Environmental Assessment" defines 2 types of environmental impact

assessment:

1. State environmental assessment - view of the central executive body of the Republic of

Kazakhstan in the sphere of environmental protection and its field offices.

2. Public environmental assessment - an activity undertaken on a voluntary basis by expert

commissions established at the initiative of individual groups, associations and research

organizations for the environmental assessment of any activity. It can operate independently of the

holding for the same projects of the state ecological expertise.

9. Highly toxic substances (HTS). Application of HTS. Effects of HTS. Highly toxic substances (HTS) - are chemical substances that are intended for use in the
economy and have a toxicity that can cause massive destruction of people, animals and plants.
At several sites of the national economy the production, use, storage and transportation of HTS takes place. Violation of technology of their production, storage and transportation, lack of discipline among staff are responsible for the creation of emergencies, disasters, leading to tragic consequences. Accidents with pollution may occur as a result of destruction of the economic facilities in the wartime or acts of sabotage, to the same results could lead earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires, and other natural disasters.
When poured out (emissions) HTS form lesions. A lesion of HTS is called an area, within which there were massive destruction people, farm animals and plants by HTS. Moreover, during the hostilities or natural disasters occurring at the site of manufacture, use or transporting of HTS, the probability of these lesions is greatly increased. They are usually divided into areas of direct pouring out (discharge) of HTS, and zones of localization of their vapors.
An important feature of the lesions formed by the HTS is the duration of the presence of areas of direct pouring out (discharge) of substances, ie persistence of infection. Most of the HTS having a boiling point up to 20 C (chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia) tend to evaporate quickly, so the resistance of infection in areas where they are pouring out (discharge) is small. However, vapor of such substances, including hazardous concentrations can be detected at large distances (up to several kilometers) from where they were poured out (discharged).
Zone of infection is called sites contaminated with highly toxic substances.
The destructive effect of HTS appears as a result of entering onto human skin as well as by
inhalation of vapors.
ffect of HTS on human health
Acute intoxication occurs, as a rule, suddenly after a brief exposure to relatively high concentrations of venom and is expressed more or less severe and specific clinical symptoms. In production conditions acute poisonings are most commonly associated with the accident, malfunction of equipment or with the introduction in technology of new materials with little-known toxicity.
Chronic intoxication caused by the intake of small amounts of venom and associated with the development of pathological phenomena only under condition of the long-term exposure, sometimes by several years.

10. Lesions. Classification based on the degree of human exposure to HTS. Chemical harmful factors on the nature of their affect on human organism are divided into the following subgroups: general toxic, irritating, sensitizing (causing allergies), carcinogenic (causing the development of tumors), mutagenic (acting on germ cells of the body).

This group includes many fumes and gases: fumes of benzene and toluene, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, aerosols of lead, etc., toxic dusts produced, for instance, when cutting beryllium, lead bronze and brass and some plastics with harmful fillers.

This group includes aggressive liquids (acids, alkalis), which can cause chemical burns of the skin in contact with them. The exposure levels of workers to harmful factors are normalized by the maximum permissible level, whose values are specified in the appropriate standards of safety standards and sanitary rules.

Harmful substance (industrial poison), entering the human body during his professional activities, causes pathological changes.

The main sources of air pollution of industrial premises by harmful substances can be raw materials, components and finished products. Diseases arising from the impact of these substances are called occupational poisoning (intoxication).

11. Effect of contaminants on human health (acute and chronic intoxication).
Prevention of occupational poisoning

Effect of HTS on human health

By the nature of development and its duration two main forms of occupational poisoning can be

distinguished - acute and chronic intoxication.

Acute intoxication occurs, as a rule, suddenly after a brief exposure to relatively high

concentrations of venom and is expressed more or less severe and specific clinical symptoms. In

production conditions acute poisonings are most commonly associated with the accident,

malfunction of equipment or with the introduction in technology of new materials with little-known

toxicity.

Chronic intoxication caused by the intake of small amounts of venom and associated with the

development of pathological phenomena only under condition of the long-term exposure, sometimes

by several years. Most industrial poisons cause both acute and chronic poisoning. However, some toxic substances

usually cause the development of second (chronic) phase of poisoning (lead, mercury, manganese).

In addition to the specific poisoning, the toxic action of harmful chemicals can contribute to the

overall weakening of the organism, in particular, to the reduction of resistance to infection. For

example, it is known the relationship between the development of influenza, sore throats,

pneumonia and presence in the body of toxic substances such as lead, hydrogen sulfide, benzene and

others. Poisoning by irritating gases can greatly exacerbate latent tuberculosis, etc.

Development of poisoning and the impact of the poison depends on the characteristics of the

physiological state of organisms. The physical stress that accompanies work life inevitably increases

the minute volume of the heart and respiration, causes certain changes in the metabolism and

increases the oxygen demand, which holds back the development of intoxication.

The sensitivity to poisons, to some extent depends on the gender and the age of workers. It is found

that some physiological states in women may increase the sensitivity of the organism to the

influence of a number of poisons (benzene, lead, mercury). A woman's skin is less resistant to the

effects of irritants, as well as a large permeability of the skin by fat-soluble toxic compounds. As

teenagers, their forming body has less resistance to the effect of almost all the harmful factors of

production, including industrial poisons.

Prevention of occupational poisoning

Measures to prevent occupational poisoning include hygienic rationalization process, its

mechanization and hermetization (sealing).

Effective way is to replace toxic substances with harmless or less toxic. It is important in improving

the working conditions by applying hygienic regulation that restricts the content of harmful

substances through the establishment of MAC in the air of working zone and on the skin. To this

end, a hygienic standardization of raw materials and products takes place, providing for limitation of

the content of toxic impurities in industrial raw materials and finished products according to their

hazard and risk.

A major role in the prevention of occupational intoxications belongs to the mechanization of the

production process, making it possible to conduct it in a closed apparatus and minimize the contact

of the worker with toxic substances (mechanical loading and unloading of fertilizers, detergents etc).

Similar problems are solved with the hermetization (sealing) of the production equipment and

facilities that emit toxic gases, fumes and dust. A reliable means of combating air pollution is the

creation of vacuum, which prevents release of toxins through existing leaks.

Sanitation activities include ventilation of working premises. Operations with special toxic

substances should be conducted in special hood cabinets with a powerful suction, or in a closed

apparatus. In the most dangerous production sites, in terms of occupational poisoning, used individual

protective equipment (overalls, respirators, gas masks, etc.). In addition, observing good personal

hygiene is of great importance, for this the enterprise has a shower, dressing rooms for separate

storage of work and personal clothing, laundry facilities for washing of work clothes, gadgets for

clothes cleaning, etc.

Sometimes the cause of severe acute and even lethal poisoning is a lack of awareness of staff about

the dangers of the production process and the basic measures of prevention, so it needs to conduct

health instruction and training in safe methods of work.

To control the purity of air in the production premises MAC indicators of hazardous substances are

used under the health laws.

The number of occupational poisoning is one of the most important indicators for assessing the

health and hygienic working conditions and health care of workers. It is necessary to emphasize the

importance of medical examinations in the prevention activities and their role in identifying early

and, therefore, easily treatable stages of occupational poisoning.

13. The concept of bacteriological (biological) weapons (BW). "Weapons of mass destruction" (WMD) have been defined as nuclear, biological and chemical weapons (NBC) employed for the purpose of inflicting massive damage, including the killing of large numbers of civilians.1 The term consolidates nuclear, biological and chemical weapons into one category because, despite differences in their effects and use, they share enormous lethality and symbolism. WMD is an open-ended concept, potentially allowing for the development of other technologies of mass destruction. "Mass Destruction" is a relative term. BW contains living organisms (as well as the means of their delivery) which is intended for use in warfare to cause death or disease and which for its effect depends on the ability to multiply in the person, animal or plant attacked, while toxins are poisonous products of organisms, which unlike biological agents are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves.6 Typically, a BW uses micro-organisms (i.e., bacteria or viruses) or toxins. While bacteria are single celled organisms that invade the human body, replicate and cause disease and death, viruses do the same, but are much smaller, consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) and must invade a host cell to multiply, Poisonous substances that can be synthetically produced or derived from living organisms are toxins.

14. Types and basic properties of BW (bacteria, viruses, rickets, fungi). 14. Types and basic properties of BW (bacteria, viruses, rickets, fungi).

Types and basic properties of biological agents

Pathogenic microorganisms are causative agents of infectious diseases in humans and animals,

which, depending on the size of their structure and biological properties, are divided into the

following classes: bacteria, viruses, fungi, spirochetes and protozoa. The last two classes of

microorganisms are of no importance as biological weapons of destruction.

Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms which are very diverse in their forms. The main forms of

bacteria are: staphylococci, diplococcus, streptococcus, bacillus, vibrions, spirillum.

Their sizes varies from 0,5 up to 8-10 microns. Bacteria in the vegetative form, ie in the form of

growth and development are very sensitive to heat, sunlight, large fluctuations in moisture and

disinfectants and, conversely, retain sufficient stability at low temperatures, even up to minus 15-25oC. Some types of bacteria survive in adverse conditions form the protective capsule or spore.

Microbes in the spore form are highly resistant to desiccation, lack of nutrients, high and low

temperatures and disinfectants. The pathogenic bacteria such as anthrax, botulism, tetanus, etc. have the ability to form spores.

According to the literature, almost all species of bacteria used as weapons of destruction, relatively easy to grow in artificial media, and their mass production is possible using equipment and processes used in industry in the manufacture of antibiotics, vitamins, and products of modern fermentation industries. The majority of agents responsible for the most dangerous human diseases such as plague, cholera, anthrax, glanders, meliodiosis etc. belong to the class of bacteria.

Viruses – an extensive group of microorganisms with a size from 0,08 to 0,35 micron. They can live and reproduce only in living cells by using the biosynthetic machinery of the host cell, i.e. are intracellular parasites. Viruses have a relatively high resistance to low temperatures and desiccation. Sunlight, particularly ultraviolet rays, as well as the temperature above 60oC and disinfectants (formalin, chloramine, and others) are destructive for viruses. Viruses are responsible for more than

75 human diseases, among which are highly dangerous such as smallpox, yellow fever, etc.

Rickettsiae - a group of microorganisms, which occupies an intermediate position between bacteria and viruses. Their sizes - from 0,3 to 0,5 microns. Rickettsiae do not form spores, resistant to drying, freezing and fluctuations in relative humidity, but are sensitive to high temperatures and disinfectants. Diseases caused by rickettsia, called rekketsioses among them are highly dangerous, such as typhus, spotted fever of Rocky Mountains, etc. In vivo rekketsioses are transmitted to humans mainly through the blood-sucking arthropods, which the infectious agents inhabit often as harmless parasites.

Fungi - one- or multi-cellular organisms of vegetable origin. Their sizes varies from 3 to 50 microns or more. Fungi can form spores, are highly resistant to freezing, drying, sunlight and disinfectants.

Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi are called mycoses. Among them are such serious infectious diseases in human like koktsidioadomikos, blaotomikos, histiplasmosis, and others.

15. Diseases caused by biological agents and toxins (anthrax, meliodiosis, glanders, botulism). Pathogenic microorganisms are causative agents of infectious diseases in humans and animals, which, depending on the size of their structure and biological properties, are divided into the following classes: bacteria, viruses, fungi, spirochetes and protozoa. The last two classes of microorganisms are of no importance as biological weapons of destruction

Anthrax

Anthrax – is general acute infectious disease of domestic animals and humans. The disease in humans is characterized by high temperature and the formation of specific carbuncles on the skin and mucous membranes, or the development of inflammatory changes in the lungs or intestine with symptoms of bleeding.

Meliodiosis – is an infectious diseases of humans and rodents, similar to glanders. The causative agent, for the similarity with the bacterium glanders is called false glanders. The microbe – is a thin bacillus, which does not form spores, has the mobility due to the presence of the beam flagella at one end, it is resistant to drying, remains viable at temperatures 26-28 degrees in soil up to a month, in the water - more than 40 days. It is sensitive to disinfectants and heat - under their influence it dies within minutes.

Glanders

Glanders is a chronic disease of horses, rarely of camels, cats and people, caused by the bacteria of glanders. Symptoms: specific nodes, and then ulcers in the respiratory organs and skin. Infection occurs through contact with sick animals. Infected animals should be destroyed. In our country, glanders has been eradicated long ago, but there is a danger of its use as biological weapons.

Botulism

Botulism is caused by botulinum toxin, which is one of the most powerful poisons known at present. Infection can occur through the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, broken skin and mucous membranes. The incubation period-from 2 hours to few days.

Botulinum toxin affects the central nervous system, vagus nerve and nervous apparatus of the heart;

Preventive measures at the sign of use of bacteriological agents.

Preventive measures

Pathogens can enter the human body in various ways: by inhalation of contaminated air, when eating contaminated food and water, by ingestion of microbes into the bloodstream through open wounds and burns of the surface, from bites of infected insect and at contact with sick people, animals, infected objects not the use of just at the time of bacterial (biological) agents, but also long after their application, if sanitation of the personnel was not carried out. The common symptoms of many infectious diseases are high body temperature and a significant weakness, as well as the rapid dissemination, resulting in a focal hearth of diseases and poisoning. Successful defense against biological weapons depends also on the degree of population immunity to infectious diseases and toxins. Immunity can be achieved above all by the general strengthening of the body by systematic hardening and physical education and sports, even in peacetime, these measures should be the rule for the entire population.

Personnel located in the hearth of bacteriological (biological) infection should not only timely and correctly use protective equipment, but strictly comply with the rules of personal hygiene

17. Rules of conduct and actions of people at the foci of bacteriological destruction 17.Rules of conduct and actions of people at the foci of bacteriological destruction
Timely and effective measures to protect against bacterial agents, is largely determined by how well the signs of bacteriological attack of the enemy are studied.
At finding at least one of the signs of biological weapons by the enemy, you must immediately put on a mask (respirator, tissue dust mask or cotton-gauze bandage), if possible, and skin care products and to notify the nearest administrative body of the CD or medical facility. Then, depending on the situation you can hide in the protective structure (asylum, anti-radiation or simple shelter). Timely and proper use of personal protective equipment and protective structures prevent from getting bacterial agents in the respiratory system, on the skin and clothing.
In order to ensure effective protection against biological weapons of great importance are the epidemiological and sanitary-hygienic measures. It is necessary strict adherence to the rules of personal hygiene and sanitation requirements, ensuring food and water supply. Cooking and eating have to exclude the possibility of bacterial contamination means; various kinds of utensils used for cooking and eating, should be washed with disinfectant solutions or treated with boiling.
The hearth of bacteriological lesion is called the city, other towns, the objects of national economy
and the territories contaminated with bacterial agents and the sources of the spread of infectious
diseases.The simultaneous appearance in the case of biological weapons a large number of infectious diseases in humans may have a strong psychological impact, even in healthy people. The action and behavior of every person in this case should be aimed at preventing possible panic

18. The measures of prevention: Quarantine and observation. Disinfection and disinsection

Quarantine and observation can be applied to prevent the spread of infectious diseases in the application of bacteriological weapons, by the order of the chiefs of the CD of districts and cities, and the objects of the national economy.

Quarantine is introduced with establishing the incontrovertible facts of the use of bacteriological weapons by the enemy, and mainly in cases of the use of particularly dangerous pathogens. Quarantine regime provides complete isolation of the lesion from the surrounding population and is intended to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

Disinfection is aimed at decontamination of environmental objects, which are necessary for normal operation and safe location of people. Disinfection, for example, of areas, facilities, equipment, machinery and various items can be carried out using fire, agriculture, construction and other equipment.

Disinsection and rodent extermination, which are known to be carriers of infectious diseases. To kill insects physical (boiling, ironing a heated iron, etc.), chemical (application of desinsective means) and combined methods are used; extermination of rodents in most cases is carried out with the help of mechanical devices (traps of various types) and chemicals.

19. Methods and means of application of bacterial agents.
Pathogenic microorganisms are causative agents of infectious diseases in humans and animals, which, depending on the size of their structure and biological properties, are divided into the following classes: bacteria, viruses, fungi, spirochetes and protozoa.
Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms which are very diverse in their forms. The main forms of bacteria are: staphylococci, diplococcus, streptococcus, bacillus, vibrions, spirillum.According to the literature, almost all species of bacteria used as weapons of destruction, relatively easy to grow in artificial media, and their mass production is possible using equipment and processes used in industry in the manufacture of antibiotics, vitamins, and products of modern fermentation industries.
Viruses – an extensive group of microorganisms with a size from 0,08 to 0,35 micron.
Rickettsiae - a group of microorganisms, which occupies an intermediate position between bacteria and viruses. Their sizes - from 0,3 to 0,5 microns.
Fungi - one- or multi-cellular organisms of vegetable origin. Their sizes varies from 3 to 50 microns or more.
example. Chronic meliodiosis The use of this disease may be different: the use of microbial cultures in bombs, projectiles, spray tank, spray gives different results. Also meliodiosis can be used for subversive detachment for contamination of air supply, water sources, storage of food. Protection against the disease in case of its application as a biological weapon may be wearing the protective clothing, gear, gas masks in the infected zone and compulsory disinfection of food and water. To present the spread of the disease the armament, equipment used in the areas of infection, should be disinfected and contaminated land – deratisated (treated against rats).
20. BW facilities developed on the territory of the Kazakhstan for the open-air testing and production of BW agents

20) Bacteriological (biological) weapons - are special munitions and military equipment with delivery
means, filled with bacterial (biological) agents. Bacteriological (biological) weapons are means of
mass destruction of people, animals and agricultural crops.
The history began in 1920, finished on 7 May 2007
On 17 April, Kazakhstan's government ratified the Convention on the prohibition of the
development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological and toxin weapons and on their
destruction. President Nursultan Nazarbayev signed the legislation on 7 May 2007. Kazakhstan
joining the Convention will mark yet another step toward strengthening its role as an advocate for
the nonproliferation of WMD.

21. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (10 April 1972). The States Parties to this Convention, Determined to act with a view to achieving effective progress towards general and complete disarmament, including the prohibition and elimination of all types of weapons of mass destruction, and convinced that the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons and their elimination, through effective measures, will facilitate the achievement of general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control. Recognizing the important significance of the Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, signed at Geneva on 17 June 1925, and conscious also of the contribution which the said Protocol has already made, and continues to make, to mitigating the horrors of war. Recognizing that an agreement on the prohibition of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons represents a first possible step towards the achievement of agreement on effective measures also for the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of chemical weapons, and determined to continue negotiations to that end. This convention consists of several article with responsibilities of States Parties.

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