Christmas Carols

Many carols sung today were born in the 18^th and 19^th centuries, though carols date back to ancient Greeks and Romans and were brought to England by the latter. The word “carol”, like “choral” and “chorus”, referred originally not to song but to dance. Ring dances performed to flute music, were popular in the ancient world and in England till medieval times. By the 13^th century “carol” had come to mean not just the dance, but the music that was sung to accompany the dance. Today only the second meaning of the word remains.

Children and some adults enjoy carol-singing from door to door, which is done on Christmas Eve. The group of singers is called carol-singers. It is a custom to give them some presents for their singing.

Example of a carol:

Once in royal David’s city

Stood a lowly cattle shed,

Where a mother laid her baby

In a manger for a bed.

Mary was that mother mild,

Jesus Christ her little child.

WE WISH YOU A MERRY CHRISYMAS

Traditional

We wish you a Merry Christmas

We wish you a Merry Christmas

We wish you a Merry Christmas

And a happy New Year.

Good tidings to you wherever you are

Good tidings for Christmas and a Happy New Year.

We wish you a Merry Christmas

We wish you a Merry Christmas

We wish you a Merry Christmas

And a happy New Year.

Good tidings we bring to you of good cheer

Good tidings for Christmas and a Happy New Year.

WHAT CHILD IS THIS?

What child is this

Who lay to rest

On Mary’s lap asleeping.

Whom angels sing their anthems sweet

While shepherds watch are keeping?

This, this is Christ the King!

Whom shepherds guard and angels sing.

Haste, haste to bring him, Lord.

The babe, the son of Mary.

So bring him incense, gold and myrrh

Come peasant, King, to owe him.

The King of Kings salvation brings

Let loving hearts enthrone him.

Raise, raise the song on high!

The Virgin sings her Lullaby

Joy, joy for Christ is born

The babe, the son of Mary.

Appendix 8.

Auld Lang Syne

“Auld Lang Syne” has been one of the world’s most popular songs for almost two centuries. It is sung not only on New Year’s Eve and at the close of reunions but also at many other social gatherings. The custom originated in Scotland after Robert Burns, Scotland’s national folk poet, wrote those lyrical words of the song in 1788. The melody is believed to be a Scottish ancient folk dance. The printed version of the song first appeared in the year of the death of the poet in 1796. Since then on different festive occasions people join hands, dance and sing this popular song. Here are its words:

Should auld acquaintance be forgot

And never brought to mind?

Should auld acquaintance be forgot

And days of auld lang syne?

CHORUS

For auld lang syne, my dear,

For auld lang syne,

We'll take a cup of kindness yet.

For auld lang syne.

We two have run about the braes

And pulled the gowants fine,

But we’ve wandered many a weary foot

Since auld lang syne.

By the way, in ancient Rome, people worshipped the good Janus and held festivals of the New Year in his honour. They believed that he had two faces, one looking back at the old year and the other looking forward towards the new. The first month of the year, January, is named after him.

Appendix 9.

Cupid – Roman god of love

Eros – Greek god of love

Venus – goddess of love

Vulcan - Roman god of fire

St. Valentine’s Day

1. The rose is red, the violet blue,

Lilies are fair and so are you.

2. February the fourteenth day,

It’s Valentine, they say,

I choose you from among the rest,

The reason was I loved you best.

3. Sure as the grape grows on the vine

So sure you are my Valentine.

4. Lilies are white,

Rosemary’s green,

When you are king,

I’ll be your queen.

5. Round is the ring that has no end,

So is my love for you, my friend,

Again do take this in good part,

Along with it you have my heart.

But if you do the same refuse,

Pray burn this paper and me excuse.

My Valentine

By M.C.Parsons

I have a little Valentine

That someone sent to me.

It’s pink and white

And red and blue, and pretty as can be.

Forget-me-nots

Are round the edge,

And tiny roses, too; and

Such a lovely piece of lace

The very palest blue.

And in the center

There’s a heart

As red as red can be!

And on it’s written

All in gold, “To you,

With love from Me”.

Appendix 10.

Russian Holidays and Customs

Our ancestors had a lot of holidays and traditions connected with different parts of the year. The majority of them are connected with Christianity.

At the end of the year people celebrated Christmas. Nowadays we celebrate this day on the 7^th January. The day before Christmas is Christmas Eve. On Christmas Eve no one sits down to the table until a star appears in the sky. This star symbolizes the one that predicted Christ’s birth to the Three Wise Men. Other symbols also remained. Thus, remembering that Christ was placed into a manger immediately after his birth, our ancestors covered the floor of their houses in the evening with hey.

On Christmas Eve people went form house to house carol-singing and wishing each other happiness and good fortune. On Christmas Eve they also predicted what the yield would be. If the day was warm than there would be a rich harvest, if the night was starlit there would be many berries.

In the morning, after fasting, people ate pork dishes of which there were often up to 12. They also baked biscuits for the children in the shape of cocks and cows. It was believed that this helped to keep the cattle healthy.

During this period relatives visited each other. Boys went form one house to another with a puppet-show box and a star.

The second day of Christmas was traditionally devoted to women in childbirth. This day even has a special name – ‘babiny’ (form the Russian word “baba” – woman), and form this day up to Shrove-tide, match-making and weddings took place.

Naturally, not all folk customs were welcomed by the church and not all religious holidays coincided with folk ones, which have their roots in paganism. Yet both remain intact to this day.

Thus, fortune-telling has always been condemned. But at Christmas-tide everyone tells fortunes. At this time imagination has no limits. Practically everything is used for this purpose: shoes, horses, gate, logs, wax, rings, eggs, beans, mirrors, candles, combs, etc. To say nothing of the interpretation of dreams.

One of the biggest holidays is Shrovetide – the coming of spring. Each day of the Shrove-tide week has its own name. Monday – meeting. Tuesday – flirtation. Wednesday – gourmand. Thursday is the main day, it is also called Wide Thursday or the Shrove-tide break. Friday is the mother-in-law’s pancakes, Saturday is the sister-in-law’s sit-round gathering and Sunday is the Shrove-tide’s seeing off. They celebrated it with songs, round dances, games, going for a drive by troika (three horses harnesses abreast) decorated with bells. And, of course, no Shrove-tide could do without pancakes, symbolizing the Sun! Even five pages would be not enough to enumerate all the types of pancakes made in Russia. Through the streets they carried a doll, which symbolized Shrove-tide and then they burned it. Good bye, winter!

Do not forget that the last day of Shrove-tide is the day to forgive all wrongs and repent before the beginning of Lent in order to clean your conscience.

Palm Sunday is the celebration of the return of the spring. In old times they said that Russian willow carries the same significance as the palm branch of Palestine.

Then, shortly after, follows Easter – the Holy Week. It is celebrated very solemnly everywhere. Without fail people bake Easter Cakes and paint eggs, which symbolize the beginning of life. “Christ has arisen again!” is heard form every house.

And immediately after comes the Krasnaya Gorka (literally Red Hill). “Krasnaya” is derived form the word “krasivaya” (beautiful). And “gorka” comes form the appearance of small isles, “gorki”, which occur during the overflow of rivers, and in which youngsters play. This is the best time for weddings. At this time the call for spring begins – the first actual spring holiday. Only then appear the first leaves, the warm weather and round dances.

There are places where they celebrate Semik or Mermaids’ week, but this custom has almost gone now.

Yet up till now Ivan Kupala (John the Baptist’s Day), one of the most beautiful summer holidays, is widely known. Kupala is a pagan god of the earth fruits. Therefore, bonfires lit on this day are, first and foremost, in memory of the sacrifice made to Kupala form the grass stems. People dance around the bonfire as if expressing joy for acceptance of the sacrifice. It is known that bathing was also offered as a sacrifice to Kupala, that is they poured water on one another. It is believed that on this night fern blossoms and shows the way to hidden treasures. Girls and boys jump over the bonfire, holding each other’s hands. If they do not unclasp hands – be sure, they will marry.

Then come Petrovki with their night celebrations and meeting the sunrise. Petrovki was known in Russia as a “hungry” period because by this time all the food supplies had been eaten up, and the new crop was not ripe yet. After this is the time to prepare for autumn.

There are places where peasants celebrate many other agricultural holidays. It’s worth mentioning at least some of them: Opashka, Kapustnitsa, Ilyin den, the First Spas (Honey Spas), the second Spas (Apple Spas), etc. At present some of them are still celebrated, some has been revived, some forgotten. So the task of our generation is to keep the heritage of our ancestors for our children and grandchildren.

Appendix 11.

Mineral Resources of Russia

Russia contains the greatest reserves of mineral resources of any country in the world. Although minerals are abundant, many are in remote areas with extreme climate conditions, which makes them expensive to extract.

Russia is especially rich in mineral fuels. The country may hold as much as one-half of the world’s potential coal reserves and may hold larger reserves of petroleum than any other nation. Coal deposits are scattered widely throughout the country; by far the largest fields lie in central and eastern Siberia, but the most developed fields are in western Siberia, the northeastern European region, the area around Moscow, and the Urals. The major petroleum deposits are in western Siberia and the Volga-Urals region. Smaller deposits are found in many other parts of the country. The principal natural gas deposits, of which Russia holds about 40 percent of the world’s reserves, are along Siberia’s Arctic coast, in the North Caucasus region, and in northwestern Russia. The primary iron-ore deposits are found south of Moscow, near the Ukrainian border in an area known as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly; in this area, vast deposits of iron ore have caused a deviation in the Earth’s magnetic field. Smaller iron ore deposits are scattered throughout the country. The Urals contain minor deposits of manganese. Other important iron alloys — such as nickel, tungsten, cobalt, and molybdenum — occur in adequate or even abundant quantities.

Russia is also well endowed with most of the nonferrous metals. The aluminum ores Russia does have are found primarily in the Urals, northwestern European Russia, and south central Siberia. Copper, on the other hand, is abundant: Reserves are found in the Urals, the Noril’sk area near the mouth of the Yenisey River in eastern Siberia, and the Kola Peninsula. A large deposit east of Lake Baikal became commercially exploitable when the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) railroad was completed in 1989.

Lead and zinc ores are abundant in the North Caucasus, far eastern Russia, and the western edge of the Kuznetsk Basin in southern Siberia. These ores are commonly found with copper, gold, silver, and a variety of rare metals. Russia has some of the world’s largest gold reserves, primarily in Siberia and the Urals. There are mercury deposits in the far northeastern part of Russia. Large asbestos deposits exist in the central and southern Urals and in south central Siberia.

Raw materials for the manufacture of chemicals are also abundant. These include potassium and magnesium salt deposits in the Kama River district of the western Urals. Some of the world’s largest deposits of apatite (a mineral from which phosphate is derived) are in the central Kola Peninsula; other types of phosphate ores are found in other parts of the country. Common rock salt is found in the southwestern Urals and southwest of Lake Baikal. Surface deposits of salt are derived from salt lakes along the lower Volga Valley. Sulfur is found in the Urals and the middle Volga Valley. High-grade limestone, used for the production of cement, is found in many parts of the country, but particularly near Belgorod near the border with Ukraine, and in the Zhiguli Hills area of the middle Volga Valley.

Appendix 12.

Climate of Russia

Most of Russia has a harsh climate with long, cold winters and short, relatively cool summers. This is because Russia lies at high latitudes, and because high mountains along the country’s southern border block most maritime tropical air masses from penetrating Russia. During winter the moderating influence of the frozen Arctic Ocean is slight. Because most of the territory lies in a zone of westerly weather patterns, warm influences from the Pacific Ocean in the east do not reach far inland. This is particularly true in winter, when a large, cold high-pressure cell, which is centered in Mongolia, spreads over much of Siberia.

The primary marine influence comes from the Atlantic Ocean in the west, but by the time Atlantic air reaches Russia it has crossed the entire western part of Europe and undergone considerable modification. It penetrates the landmass most easily during summer, when a low-pressure system generally exists over the land. At that time warm, moist Atlantic air may push east well into central Siberia. This is the principal moisture-bearing air mass to reach Russia, and most of the territory consequently receives fairly high levels of summer precipitation. The summer precipitation is important for croplands, which need moisture during the growing season. In many areas, however, the distribution of rainfall during the summer is not advantageous. Drought often occurs in early summer, and middle and late summer may bring considerable rain and clouds that interfere with the harvest. This is particularly true in the far eastern region, where a monsoonal inflow of Pacific air occurs during middle and late summer. In northern regions, especially from Moscow northward, featureless, overcast skies are so frequent, particularly during winter, that Russians have named the phenomenon pasmurno, meaning "dull, dreary weather." During December, for instance, Moscow averages 23 days with overcast skies.

Most of the country has only light to modest precipitation, however. Across the Great European Plain, average annual precipitation decreases from more than 800 mm (32 in) in western Russia to less than 400 mm (16 in) along the Caspian Sea coast. Throughout Siberia, annual precipitation generally ranges from 500 to 800 mm (20 to 32 in), with precipitation amounts generally less than 300 mm (12 in) in northeastern Siberia. At higher elevations annual totals may reach 1,000 mm (40 in) or more, but in interior basins precipitation may total less than 300 mm (12 in).

Russia’s climate is characterized by temperature extremes. The coldest winter temperatures occur in eastern Siberia, while air from the Atlantic Ocean tempers conditions somewhat in the west. Verkhoyansk in the northeast is often called the "cold pole of the north." During January, temperatures there average -51°C (-59°F), and they have reached a low of -68°C (-90°F) in February. The same conditions that make for cold temperatures during winter—isolation from the sea and narrow valleys between mountains—produce air stagnation in summer. Furthermore, because Verkhoyansk is so far north, it experiences nearly continuous daylight hours in summer. During July temperatures in Verkhoyansk average 13°C (56°F) and have reached as high as 37°C (98°F). The city has an absolute temperature range (the difference between the coldest and hottest recorded temperatures) of 105° Celsius degrees (188° Fahrenheit degrees), by far the greatest temperature range on Earth.

Russia encompasses a number of distinct climate zones, which generally extend across the country in east-west belts. A polar desert climate exists on several of the Arctic islands, such as the northernmost portions of Novaya Zemlya and Severnaya Zemlya. Along the Arctic coast a tundra climate prevails and extends south in the far eastern region on upper mountain slopes for 100 km (60 mi) or more. To the south of this zone is a broad belt of subarctic climate that extends south to the city of Saint Petersburg and broadens east of the Urals to envelop almost all of Siberia.

Most of European Russia has a more temperate continental climate. This belt is widest in the west. It stretches from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, then tapers eastward to include a narrow strip of the southern West Siberian Plain; it is also found in the extreme southeastern portion of Russia. Temperatures in Moscow, which lies in the continental climate zone, range from -13° to -6°C (9° to 21°F) in January and from 13° to 24°C (56° to 75°F) in July. Temperatures in Vladivostok, in the southern part of far eastern Russia, range from -17° to -9°C (1° to 16°F) in January and from 15° to 20°C (59° to 69°F) in July.

A broad belt of drier steppe climate with cold winters begins along the Black Sea coast and extends northeast across the North Caucasian Plain, the lower Volga Valley, the southern Urals, and southwestern Siberia. It continues eastward in isolated mountain basins along the extreme fringes of Siberia.

Appendix 13.

American Culture and Culture Shock: Myths and Realities

From your reading, from American films and TV, and from talking with Americans in your country, you have probably formed some idea of life in the United States. Some of what you have seen and heard is true; some of it is probably distorted or just plain fiction. To help you distinguish fantasy from fact, we include several common "mythical" statements about life in the United States, followed by our view of the reality behind these myths. Remember though, that each person's experience is different, and part of the value of your experience abroad will be your own discovery of America and Americans.

MYTH: Life is easy in the United States.

REALITY: While it is true that the material standard of living in the United States is high, this has not resulted in a leisurely pace of life. Visitors to the United States are often surprised at how hard most Americans work, at their long work hours and short vacations, and at the fast pace of American life in general. Even leisure time is often devoted to activities such as sports, exercise, or other hobbies that involve intense activity and effort. Many Americans are uncomfortable with true leisure and feel guilty about doing nothing or spending long periods of time relaxing or talking with friends.

MYTH: America is “the land of the free,” so I can do whatever I want there. REALITY: Individual freedom is an important American value, but newcomers may find themselves overwhelmed by the legal and bureaucratic restrictions on their activities and confused by the complexities of social interaction. Throughout their 300-year history, Americans have been trying to balance the freedom of the individual with the well-being of society, sometimes with odd results. Often the right of a majority to freedom from something wins out, as in anti-smoking laws, where the right of nonsmokers to be free of smoke overrides the right of smokers to smoke.

In the United States many different cultures exist side by side, which means that values may differ widely from one social group to another and from one individual to another. Sometimes it may seem that no rules apply and that "anything goes," but a newcomer should be wary of making assumptions about what is acceptable, especially in the area of sexual relations.

MYTH: Americans are racist/Americans are tolerant.

REALITY: These contradictory stereotypes exist side by side, and both have elements of truth. In general you need not fear that you will encounter overt racism in the United States, particularly within the university or college community. In regions where there are many immigrants you may find yourself blending in, suffering more from indifference than intolerance. In other, more isolated and homogeneous areas, you may be an object of curiosity, noticed and welcomed, but perhaps not always understood. Because of America's relative geographical isolation, many Americans are quite ignorant about the rest of the world and may be rather chauvinistic (have a sense of national superiority). This can be irritating, but you will find that hostility toward foreigners is rare. Racial and ethnic prejudice is unfortunately a reality in the United States. This is a complex issue that reflects many of the paradoxes of American history. Be aware also that you may have been influenced by racial stereotyping in American films. Visitors to the United States are sometimes surprised to find that the African-Americans they meet in the United States have nothing in common with the violent stereotype so often projected in the movies.

MYTH: The United States is a classless society.

REALITY: Although the United States does not have a history or tradition of rigidly defined social classes, distinctions among economic classes in the United States result in de facto social stratification. Although the majority of Americans can be considered to belong to the middle class, there is a small, wealthy upper class and a growing underclass.

MYTH: Americans are rude and loud.

REALITY: This is the image of the "ugly American" who, when abroad, demands in loud English to be understood. It is true that Americans are often less inhibited socially than people from some other cultures. It is equally true that directness, or saying what one thinks, is acceptable behavior. Americans value honesty and frankness. They are generally not embarrassed or angered by being told they are wrong, as long as the criticism is stated in a friendly and respectful way. They would generally prefer an honest argument or refusal to polite but insincere agreement. The definition of "rudeness" varies widely from one culture to another. MYTH: All Americans are rich and drive fast cars.

REALITY: In the United States, as in any country, there is a wide spectrum of economic status. Many American students go deeply into debt to obtain a university degree. However, you may find it hard at first to tell the rich from the poor. Even "poor" American students own a lot of things, from cars and computers to stereos and skis. Material goods are easy to acquire in a consumer oriented, credit-driven society, but they do not necessarily indicate great wealth. A car may be a practical necessity for a student who works long hours after classes or who lives with his or her family in another town.

MYTH: American students are less prepared academically than students from my country.

REALITY: Some American students are less prepared academically than others. In general, American students have a lot of experience in test-taking and at expressing their opinions in class.

MYTH: American professors are casual, sometimes even asking students to address them by their first names.

REALITY: It is true that your American professors may ask you to address them by their first names, but this does not mean they do not expect your respect. The ways in which courtesy and respect are shown to an American professor may well differ from how they are expressed in your country. Respect in a U.S. classroom includes a willingness to participate in class debate and to ask questions when you do not understand something that has been said. Spend time watching how your American classmates interact with the professors. You will catch on quickly to the unique mix of formality and structure.

MYTH: American students use illegal drugs.

REALITY: Some do; most do not.

Appendix 14.

Metric conversions

Weights Liquid measures

Avoirdupois Metric Imperial Metric

1 grain 64.8 milligrams 1 fl.oz. (fluid) app. 30 milliliters

1 dram 1.772 grams 1 gill (¹/₄ pt) app. 145 milliliters

1 oz. just under 30 grams 1 pt. (pint) 0.57 liter (Br)

I lb. (1 pound=16 oz) 454 grams 0.47 liter (Am)

1 stone 6.35 kg 1 qt. (quart) app. 1.14 liters (Br)

0.946 liter (Am)

1 gallon 4.546 liters (Br)

3.785 liters (Am)

Oven temperatures

Fahrenheit Celsius

Slow 300 150

325 170

Moderate 350 180

400 200

Hot 425 220

475 240

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7. Фото из личных архивов Серкиной О.В.

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