What is the aim of Lexicology? What are the main Methods of Research?

What are the Celtic tribes and languages in British Isles?

Before the spread westwards of Angles, Saxons and Vikings, Britain and Ireland were inhabited by tribes speaking Celtic languages. Their origins probably go back to about 2,400 BC, when the first Bell Beaker material appeared in the British Isles. The Celts came to Britain in the three waves and immediately preceded the Teutons. Celtic tribes invaded Britain about 500 B.C. Economically and socially the Celts were a tribal society made up of kins, kinship groups, clans and tribes; they practised a primitive agriculture, and carried on trade with Celtic Gaul. The first millennium B.C. was the period of Celtic migrations and expansion. Traces of their civilization are still found all over Europe.

Celtic languages were spoken over extensive parts of Europe before our era; later they were absorbed by other IE languages and left very few vestiges behind. The Gaelic branch has survived as Irish (or Erse) in Ireland, has expanded to Scotland as Scotch-Gaelic of the Highlands and is still spoken by a few hundred people on the Isle of Man (the Manx language). The Britonnic branch is represented by Kymric or Welsh in modern Wales and by Breton or Armorican spoken by over a million people in modern France(in the area called Bretagne or Britanny, where the Celts came as emigrants from Britain in the 5^th c.); another Britonic dialect in Great Britain, Cornish, was spoken in Cornwall until the end of the 18^th c.

What Celtic languages in modern Britain can you regard?

After most of the British Isles had been populated by Germanic tribes, further settlers came from Rhine valley. They were successive tribes of Celts. The earliest inhabitants whose linguistic affiliation has been established are the Celts. The Celts came to Britain in the three waves and immediately preceded the Teutons. Celtic tribes invaded Britain about 500 B.C. Economically and socially the Celts were a tribal society made up of kins, kinship groups, clans and tribes; they practised a primitive agriculture, and carried on trade with Celtic Gaul. The first millennium B.C. was the period of Celtic migrations and expansion. Traces of their civilization are still found all over Europe.

Celtic languages were spoken over extensive parts of Europe before our era; later they were absorbed by other IE languages and left very few vestiges behind. The Gaelic branch has survived as Irish (or Erse) in Ireland, has expanded to Scotland as Scotch-Gaelic of the Highlands and is still spoken by a few hundred people on the Isle of Man (the Manx language). The Britonnic branch is represented by Kymric or Welsh in modern Wales and by Breton or Armorican spoken by over a million people in modern France(in the area called Bretagne or Britanny, where the Celts came as emigrants from Britain in the 5th c.); another Britonic dialect in Great Britain, Cornish, was spoken in Cornwall until the end of the 18th c.

What can you tell about the Roman occupation of Britain?

In the first century B.C. British land was conquered by the Romans. Julius Caesar attacked Britain for economic reasons – to obtain tin, pearls and corn also for strategic reasons. The Romans subdued the Britions and colonized the country establishing a great number of military camps which eventually developed into English cities. The Roman occupation of Britain lasted nearly 400 years; the province was carefully guarded: about 40,000 men were stationed there. Two fortified walls ran across the country, a network of paved Roman roads connected the towns and military camps. Scores of towns with a mixed population grew along the Roman roads – inhabited by Roman legionaries, civilians and by the native Celts; among the most important trading centres of Roman Britain was London. The Roman occupation came to an end in the early 5^th c. In A.D. 410, the Roman troops were officially withdrawn to Rome by the emperor Constantine. The other cause was the growth of independent kingdoms on former Roman territories.

Four centuries of Roman occupation had a profound effect on the country, had meant far- reaching Romanization, or Latinization, of life in Great Britain, including Christianization of its inhabitants and the establishment of Latin, besides Brittonic(a sub-branch of Common Celtic from which Welsh, Cornish and Breton are said to have been derived), as the language of administration and law as well as of the Church and at least the second language of the upper strata among the urban and rural population of Roman Britain. Romanization of distant Britain was more superficial than that of continental provinces (e.g. Gaul and Iberia, where the complete linguistic conquest resulted in the growth of new Romance languages, French and Spanish.

The sphere where the Romans left a great influence is language. There are thousands of them! Latin/Roman is probably the most significant source of English words, from 'abduct' (Latin abductus) to 'zed' (Late Latin zeta, from Greek z eta.)
More examples: abundant, Latin abundant, face, L. Facies, page, L. pagina, plant, L. Planta. rotund, L. rotund, sanctum, L. Sanctum, status, L. Status, tribute L. Tributum, verb, L. verbum

What do you know about Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain and formation of English language?

The invaders from the 5^th and the following centuries came from various West Germanic tribes referred to as Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes. About the middle of the century these West Germanic tribes overran Britain and, for the most part colonized the island by the end of the century, though the invasion lasted in the 6^th c. A.D. too.The story of the invasion was told by Bede (673-735), a monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England, HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORIUM.According to Bede the invaders came to Britain in A.D. 449 under the leadership of two Germanic kings, Hengist and Horsa; they had been invited by a British king, Vortigern, as assistants and allies in a local war. The newcomers soon dispossessed their hosts, and other Germanic bands followed. The invaders came in multitude, in families and clans, to settle in the occupied territories; the conquest of Britain was not a migration of entire continental Germanic tribes but a process which involved numerous, and often probably, mixed bands of many continental tribes. The Britons fought against the conquerors for about a century and a half till about the year 600.The conquerors settled in Britain in the following way.The Angles occupied most of the territory north of the river the Thames up to the Firth of Forth in Scotland. The Saxons, the territory south of the Thames; the Jutes settled in Kent and in the Isle of Wight. Since the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain their language ties with the continent were broken, and its further development went its own way. It is at this time, the 5^th century A.D. that the history of the English language begins. Its original territory was England in the strict sense. The conquest of Britain by Anglo-Saxons was completed by the end of the seventh century. Members of various Germanic tribes were brought into contact with Celtic –speaking Britons. The speech of the population, living in the country, was a hybrid Anglo-British intermixture. The Old English speech community was heterogeneous. The main point to note is that these kingdoms actually spoke different languages based on the grammars, vocabularies and pronunciations of the original Germanic languages of the different tribes. West Saxon dialect, as a regional dialect, developed primarily in the South West of England, dominated at that period of the development of the English language. The spread of this standardized form of West Saxon, its knowledge and use in writing throughout England in the tenth and eleventh centuries was greatly facilitated by the political and cultural supremacy of Wessex during most of this period and the unification of England under a single crown. There are a lot of texts, records, written in West Saxon dialect found from that time.

What can you tell about the Scandinavian conquest of Britain?

A new language-contact situation arose when, in the last third of the ninth century, Viking war-bands from Denmark and Norway began the systematic occupation of English territory and the settlement of occupied areas in various parts of the country. This resulted in a Scandinavian-speaking community of some considerable size coming into existence in the period of Viking dominions. It was only in the battle at Edington (Wiltshire) in 878, when King Alfred won the Danes that prevented the Danes or Norsemen from becoming lords over all England and forced them to conclude a peace treaty. The Treaty of Wedmore practically meant the division of England into two parts. The Vikings promised to leave Wessex and to accept Christianity. The northern and eastern territories already belonged to the Danes. This area was called the Danelaw. The number of people of the Scandinavian stock who became permanent occupants of the conquered territory was considerable. Naturally, the massive settlement that the Scandinavians undertook led to the extensive use of the Norse tongue in the area of the Danelaw, and we can see evidence of it even today through its influences on the English language. Scandinavian vocabulary penetrated nearly every area of the English language. Most words of Scandinavian origin in English are concrete everyday words. A few examples are given here: nouns -bank, birth, booth, egg, gift, husband, law, leg, root, score, sister, skin, sky, skirt, trust, wing, window; adjectives - awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, low, odd, sly, ugly, weak, wrong; verbs – to cast, clip, crawl, cut, die, drown, gasp, give, lift, nag, scare, sprint, take, want, the present plural of ‘to be’ are; pronouns both, same, they, them and their. The facts that even the Norse pronoun ‘they’, ‘them’ and ‘their’ were accepted into English is remarkable; it is very unusual that grammatical items are borrowed. This suggests that there was extensive contact between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings and a gradual integration of the two groups. It can be difficult to recognize the Scandinavian words since the languages are so closely related. For example, the Old English word for ‘take’ was niman, but in late Old English tacan is found. The Old Norse word was taka, which shows that it must have been borrowed from the Scandinavians. In the same way, the word ‘law’ was originally oe but a later recording is lagu, which comes from the Old Norse. In fact, judging by the large number of Scandinavian words in the legal area, the Vikings had a considerable impact upon the law and order of the Anglo-Saxons. The Scandinavian peoples brought not only their laws and customs to the Danelaw, but their view on law and legal custom was to a great extent acknowledged by all of England.

What do you know about North –Sea Germanic tribal dialects?

The Germanic languages today are conventionally divided into three linguistic groups: East Germanic, North Germanic, and West Germanic. There are sometranslation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: “pipe of peace”, “pale-faced”; from German “masterpiece”, “homesickness”, “superman”. German: yacht, dog, landscape. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans, these two opposing peoples came into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new things. They learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are no words for these products in their tribal languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them. The term native is used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to British Isles from the continent in the 5^th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes and the native words represent the original stock of this particular language. All words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, should, would, must, can, may; pronouns: I, you, he, my, his, who, whose; prepositions: in, out, on, under etc.The native words are further subdivided into Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic origin. By the Indo-European element are meant words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible. The following classification was given by V.D. Arakin.

1. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter.

2. Parts of human body: foot, nose, lip, heart.

3. Animals: cow, swine, goose.

4. Plants: tree, corn.

5. Time of day: day, night.

6. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star.

7. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad.

8. The numerals from one to a hundred.

9. Pronouns – personal, demonstrative.

The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element.

1. Parts of the human body: head, back, hand, arm, finger, bone.

2. Animals: bear, fox, calf.

3. Plants: oak, fir, grass.

4. Natural phenomena: rain, frost.

5. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer.

6. Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench.

7. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, high, good, old.

8. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, drink, give, make.

What is the influence of Scandinavian vocabulary on the English language?

From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, take, cast, die, law, husband, window, ill, loose, low, and weak. Some of the words of this group are easilyrecognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk -combination, e.g. sky, skill, ski, skirt etc. There are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning “ to live ” for the word “to dwell” which in Old English had the meaning “to wander”. Let’s consider another word the adjective gay was borrowed from French in several meanings at once: “noble of birth”, “bright, shining”. Rather soon it shifted its ground developing the meaning “joyful, high-spirited” in which sense it became a synonym of the native merry and in some time left it far behind in frequency and range of meaning. Scandinavian Place-names and Personal Names in England More than 600 places bear Scandinavian names, e.g. Grimsby, Whitby, Derby, Rugby, and Thoresby, which end in –by, meaning “farm” or “town” in Danish.About 300 names contain the Scandinavian word thorp, which means “village”. An almost equal number contain the word thwaite, which means “an isolated peace of land”. Examples of the latter include Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Cowperthwaite, Langthwaite, and Satterthwaite. There are also a hundred places bearing names ending in toft, which means “a piece of ground”, e.g. Brimtoft, Eastoft, Langtoft, Lowestoft, and Nortoft. In some districts in the counties of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire about 75 percent of the place-names are of Scandinavian origin. A similarly high percentage of Scandinavian personal names are found, e.g. names ending in –son, like Stevenson, and Johnson, which end in the equivalent of the Old English patronymic –ing as in Browning. B. The Earliest Borrowing by Old English from the Scandinavian Languages The number of Scandinavian words that appeared in Old English was small, amounting to only twenty words. The largest group was associated with sea-roving, as in barda (beaked ship), cnearr (small warship),; (vessel; (fleet),;mann (pirate), dreng (warrior), bātswegen (boatman), hofding (chief), orrest (battle), rān (robbery, and fylcian (to collect a force).A little later, a number of words relating to the law or the social and administrative system entered into English. Examples include the word law itself, as well as outlaw, wapentake (an administrative district), hūsting (assembly), which all come from the Danish language.In addition to the above words, there are a number of Old English words that are translations of Scandinavian terms, e.g. bōtlēas (what cannot be compensated), hāmsōcn (attacking an enemy in his house), and landcēap (tax paid when land was bought) and other loan-translations. Such legal terminology were replaced by French terms after the Norman Conquest. The Character of Scandinavian Loanwords After the Danes had begun to enter into ordinary relations with the English, Scandinavian words began to enter in number into English. These words show the varied and yet simple character of the borrowings. And they made their way into English through the give–and–take of everyday life. Among nouns were band, birth, booth, bull, calf (of leg), egg, fellow, gait, gap, guess, kid, leg, link, loan, race, root, scales, score, seat, sister, skin, skirt, sky, steak, tidings, trust, want, and window, among many others.Among adjectives we find awkward, flat, ill, loose, low, meek, odd, rotten, scant, seemly, sly, tight, and weak.A surprising number of common verbs is among the borrowings, like to bait, call, cast, clip, crave, crawl, die, gape, gasp, get, give, glitter, kindle, lift, nag, raise, rid, scare, screech, take, thrive, and thrust. Lists like the above show the familiar, everyday character of the words that the Scandinavian invasions and subsequent settlement brought into the English language.

What are the main three periods in the history of the English language?

The problem of chronological division of the periods in the history of the English language. The main three periods which are distinguished in the history of the English language: Old English, Middle English, Modern English.Whenever we have to deal with a long stretch of time in the history of the country, or of a culture, we naturally tend to divide this stretch of time into some periods. This division must not be arbitrary: it must be based on a set of features agreed in advance and serving to distinguish one period from the other. With reference to the history of English language which covers roughly 1300 years, different features might be taken as aground for such division. The English scholar Henry Sweet (1845-1912), the author of a number of works on the English language and on its history, proposed the following division of the history of English language according to the state of unstressed ending.

The first period –Old English – the period of full endings. This means that any vowel may be found in an unstressed ending. For example, the word singan means ‘sing’, we have at the end vowel a or the word sunu means ‘son’ we have at the end vowel u.

The second period - Middle English is the period of leveled endings.

Old English singan - singen Middle English, sunu - sune Middle English.

The third period is Modern English period, the period of lost endings. This means that ending is lost altogether, we have sing and son.

This division is based on a feature both phonetic (weakening and loss of unstressed vowel sounds) and morphological (weakening and loss of grammatical morphemes).Now we must define the chronological limits of each period. These are approximately the following: the Old English period begins about 700A.D. (the time to which the earliest writing in English belongs) and lasts till about 1100 A.D.The Middle English period lasts in the period between 1100 and till 1500 (including the 15^th century transitional period). The Modern English period begins about 1500 and lasts till our own times. Within Modern English period it is customary to distinguish between Early Modern English (approximately 1500-1660), and Late Modern English (approximately from 1660 till our times). These dates are very close to important events in the social and political life of the country: 1100 follows close upon 1066, the year of Norman Conquest at the Battle of Hastings, when the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, defeated King Harold and became the king of England. The Norman Invasion of England in 1066 brought French into England. This led to the unusual situation, in which the common people spoke one language (English), and the aristocrats spoke another (Norman French).The two languages gradually began to mix into what we now call Middle English and the year 1500 is close to 1485, the year when the war of Roses came to an end, which marked the decay of feudalism and the rise of capitalism in England. The end of the 15^th century is also the time when the English nation arises. The Early Modern English Period coincided with the Renaissance, the time of discoveries and learning, the time of introduction of printing. The loss of most inflectional endings in the 15^th c. was the main feature of the Modern English.According to the famous author of the textbook “A History of the English Language” T.A.Rastorguyeva, the history of the English language is subdivided into seven periods differing in \linguistic situation and the nature of linguistic changes.

I	Early OE (also: Pre-written OE)	450 - 700	}	OLD ENGLISH
II	OE (also: Written OE)	700 - 1066
III	Early ME	1066 - 1350	}	MIDDLE ENGLISH
IV	ME (also: Classical ME)	1350 - 1475
V	Early NE	1476 - 1660		EARLY NEW ENGLISH
VI	Normalisation Period (also: Age of Correctness, Neo-Classical period)	1660 - 1800	}	NEW ENGLISH (also: MODERN ENGLISH)
VII	Late NE, or Mod E (including Present-day English)	1800 - …

Give the full form of the following abbreviations. Define acronyms read as ordinary words and acronyms with alphabetical reading.

Acronyms read as ordinary words:

NASA- National Aeronautics Space Administration

UEFA- The Union of European Football Associations

FIFA- The Fédération Internationale de Football Association

UCAS- Universities And College Admissions Service

UFO- Unidentified Flying Object

SOS- save our souls

AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

TOEFL- Test Of English as a Foreign Language

Acronyms with alphabetical reading:

MP- member of parliament.

IQ- An intelligence quotient,

FBI- Federal Bureau of Investigation

VIP- very important person

IELTS- International English Language Testing System

Group the words formed by sound-interchange into those formed by: 1) vowel-interchange 2)consonant-interchange 3) combining both means, vowel and consonant –interchange.

1) vowel-interchange – long-length,strike-stroke, full-fill,sing-song,knot -knit

2)consonant-interchange- wreathe- wreath, believe- belief,lose-loss, prove-proof, shelve-shelf, breathe-breath, loathe –loath,clothe - cloth

3) combining both means, vowel and consonant –interchange -bake-batch, glaze-glass, wake-watch,speak-speech.

18) Write the compound words in four columns:

Neutral compound – speedometer,airbus,snowman, honeymoon, sportsman, bookshop, brain-drain, water-melon, note-book, to baby-sit, to book-hunt

Derived compound –, video-recorder, fair-haired, match –breaker,back-grounder, well-dressed, blood-thirsty, three-cornered

Compound words consisting of three or more stems – high-pitched voice, forget-me-not, theatre-goer,,, sunflower seed, good-for-nothing,, bread-and-butter

Compound-shortened words – TV-show, H-bag, V-day.

19) Define the types of non-productive ways of word-building:

1) stress interchange: to af’fix- ‘affix,to con’flict – ‘conflict, ‘contest-con’test

2) Reduplication: walkie-talkie, chi-chi, tip-top, ping-pong, riff-raff

3) sound imitation: bark, buzz

4)Blendings: edutainment, brunch,

5) back formation: to butle –butler, life-to live,to beg, to emote,

Write which words have combined to form the following terms.

Interpol – International Police

Emoticon – emotion + icon

Netiquette – internet + etiquette

Technophobe – technology + phobia

Netizen – internet+ citizen

Motel - hotel+motor

Heliport – helicopter +airport

Slanguage – slang + language

Medicare – medical+care

Slimnastics – slim + gymnastics

Sci-fi – science + fiction

Informecial – television +commercial

Edutainment – education +entertainment

Chiclit – chicken + literature

Give the complete classification of the following words

Rewrite-prefixation

Brunch-blending

Music-lover-derivational compound

Baby-sitter- derivational compound

Chicklit-blending

blackberry-neutral compound

US-abbrevation

Strong – strength-sound interchange

TV-program-compound-shortened

export – to export-conversion

a toy – to toy-conversion

to do – doer-affixation

telecast (television broadcast)-blending

computer – to compute-back formation

ping-pong-reduplication

Ph.D.,-initial abbrevation

internet – net-lexical abbreviation,aphaeresis

Str.– Street-abbrevation

Smog-blending

Cuckoo-sound imitation

sunflower-seed-compound word consisting 3 stems

V-day-compound-shortened

Action-noun-forming suffixes

Blockbuster-derivational compound

Draughtsman-compound morphological

Netizen-blending

Arrange the compounds into two groups: a) idiomatic, b) non- idiomatic. Say whether the semantic change within idiomatic compounds is partial or total.

Idiomatic:

Partial: lady-killer,light-hearted,blackberry,bluebell,lazy-bones,sun-flower,flower bed,sunflower-seed,culture-vulture,highway

Total:butter-finger,bluecoat,horse-marine,ladybird

Non-idiomatic: flower-pot,watermelon,cabman,wolf-dog,backache,greengroccer,money-box,air-kiss,blacklist

23.Point out the synonymic dominant of each group and explain the connotative meanings of the following synonyms:

1. journey – voyage – trip – tour – cruise – travel – hitch-hiking;

2. road – path – way – track – highway;

3. disease – illness – malady – ailment;

Match the words in American English with their British equivalents.

Baggage-luggage,blow-out-puncture,gasoline-petrol,round trip-return,line-queue,

Sidewalk-pavement,subway-underground,tag-label,truck-lorry,vacation-holiday

Wire-telegram,yard-gerden.

25.Subdivide the following words into: Native English origin, Latin origin, Scandinavian origin, French origin, Spanish origin, Italian origin, Greek origin, German Origin.

1. Cherry, pear, plum, beet, pepper -latin origin

2. Pupil, lesson, library, science, pencil. -french

3. Father, mother, brother, son. -greek

4. Libretto, violin, opera, operetta, alarm-italian.

5. Hurricane, tomato, tobacco, chocolate. -spanish

6. Waltz yacht, dog, landscape. -german

7. Take, cast, die, law sky, skill, ski.-scandinavian

8. Anemia, criterion, hormone.-rnglish

9.wigwam,moccasin,tomahawk-indian

26. Classify homonyms into homonyms proper, 6homographs and homophones. Explain the meanings of these words in English.

1.а row – a row-homograph (propel with oars- a linear arrangement of seating).

2. a fan – a fan-homonyms proper (someone who likes and admires a famous person or something-a device for creating a current of air or a breeze)

3. right (adj.) – right (n.)-homonyms proper (correct-the opposite of the left)

4.a piece – peace-homophone (chunk-quiet)

5. bean (n.) – been v.-homophone-(a legume-past tence of be)

6. a spring – spring (n) -homonyms proper (a strip of metal-the season between summer and winter)

7. a bow (n.) – to bow (v.) -homograph (tie-greet)

8.to tear - (v.) – a tear (n.)- homograph (break-pearl)

9.sea (n.) – see (v.)-homophone (ocean-to look)

10.a band – a band- homonyms proper (group-braid)

11.week (n.)– weak (adj.)-homophone (seven days-not strong)

12.desert [`dezәt]-(n.) – to desert [di`zә:t]- (v.), -homograph (sahara-to leave)

13.flour (n.) – a flower –homophone (powdered grain-a bloom)

14. a mole – a mole-homonyms proper (birthmark-kind of animal)

27. Define the types of lexical abbreviation – apocope, syncope, aphaeresis, both initial and final shortenings:

1.mart (market)-syncope, 2.net (internet)-aphaeresis,3. com (computer)-apocope,4. copter (helicopter)-aphaeresis, 5.flu (influenza)- both initial and final shortening,6. maths (mathematics)-syncope,7. expo (exposition)-apocope,8. phone (telephone)-aphaeresis, 9.bus (omnibus)-aphaeresis,10. tec (detective)- both initial and final shortening,11. hols (holidays)-syncope,12. miss – (mistress-sycope, 13.fridge – (refrigerator)- both initial and final shortening.

Give American English equivalents.

1. Curtain.- 2. Petrol-gasoline 3. Bill.-check 4. Pavement-sidewalk. 5. Postbox-mailbox. 6. Tap-faucet. 7. Lift-elevator. 8. Railway-railroad. 9. Motor-car.-automobile 10. State school.-public school 11. Chemist.-drug store 12. Underground.-subway 13. Biscuits-cookies. 14. Rubbish.-garbage,trash 15. Torch.-flashlight.

29. Define the close relation s of the words to the dominant words: vehicle, flower, animal, plant, reptile.

Vehicle:car,bus,lorry,taxi,tram,coach,truck,caravan.

Flower:daffodil,tulip,seal,rosa,snowdrop.

Animal:bear,fox,squirrel,zebra.

Plant:grass,ash,oak,maple,bush,tree.

Reptile:snake,lizard.

Define the difference in meaning of the given compounds possessing the change of distributional patterns.

1.Vid-kid(A child raised on television and video games with little or no parental supervision) - kid-vid(television programs,television programming or videotapes for children);

2.Pot-flower(flowers which grows in the room) – flower-pot;(A pot in which plans are grown)

3.fruit-market (the geographic area where you will market fresh fruits and vegetables)– market-fruit;(market)

4.boat-house(a building especially designed for the storage of boats,normally smaller craft for sports or leasure use) – house-boat;(a boat that has been designed to be used primarily as a home)

5.school-grammar – grammar-school(different types of school in the history of education in the UK);

6.board-school(one of various former elementary schools established in Great Britain.) – school-board(a group of people who are elected to make decisions about how to manage a school).

What is the aim of Lexicology? What are the main Methods of Research?

Lexicology derives from two Greek words lexis "word" and logos "learning". It is

a branch of Linguistics dealing with the vocabulary system of the language. It studies the total sum of all the words that the language possesses. Thus, this science studies the properties of the words as the basic units of the language.

The word can be defined as a structural and semantic entity of the language

system. The word is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.

Lexicology studies various lexical units: words, variable word-groups, phraseological units, and morphemes which make up words. The word as well as any linguistic sign is a two-faced unit possessing both form and content or in other words sound-form and meaning.The term vocabulary means the total sum of words that there are in the language.

Methods of Linguistic Analysis

• Observation is the basic phase of all modern scientific investigations

including linguistics. In other words, we deal with the inductive method of inquiry.

The key role of the opening phase of linguistic analysis is that the statements of fact must be based on observation, not on unsupported authority, logical conclusions or personal preferences.

• Classification is the second phase that comes after observation. Every

lexicological research is based on collecting linguistic examples. At this stage of

linguistic analysis the stored facts, the collected data, and empirical material undergo some grouping.

• Generalization is the third stage of the linguistic analysis at which the

collection of data and their classification must eventually lead to the formulation of a hypotheses, rule, or law.

32.What Branches of Linguistics are closely connected with Lexicology?

The term «lexicology» is of Greek origin / from «lexis» - «word» and «logos» - «science». Lexicology is the part of linguistics, which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.

Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their sound form and meaning. In this case it is called historical lexicology.
Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics – the science of language. The literal meaning of the term “lexicology” is “the science of the word”. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims & methods of scientific research. Its basic task – being a study & systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development & its current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological units & morphemes, which make up words.

Distinction is made between GENERAL LEXICOLOGY & SPECIAL LEXICOLOGY. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.).

Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics: phonetics, for example, investigates the phonetic structure of language & is concerned with the study of the outer sound-form of the word. Grammar is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after which words are combined into word-groups & sentences. There is also a close relationship between lexicology & stylistics, which is concerned with a study of a nature, functions & styles of languages.

Lexicology – 'science of the word', a branch of linguistics, which basic task is a study and systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use.

1. general lexicology – part of general linguistics, is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language;

2. special lexicology – the lexicology of a particular language, i.e. the study and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units, primarily words as the main units of language.; special lexicology is based on the principles worked out and laid down by general lexicology, a general theory of vocabulary. Special lexicology employs synchronic (q.v.) and diachronic (q.v.) approaches:
- special descriptive lexicology (synchronic lexicology) – deals with the vocabulary and vocabulary units of a particular language at a certain time
- special historical lexicology (diachronic lexicology) – deals with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time

What is the definition of the basic language unit? What are the structural types of words in English?

Study of the article lexicology as industries of linguistics, its connection with the sections of linguistics. Description of word as an element of language. Correlation of phonetic and semantic types of motive in lexical units of English

1.language unit - one of the natural units into which linguistic messages can be analyzed linguistic unit

discourse - extended verbal expression in speech or writing

word - a unit of language that native speakers can identify; "words are the blocks from which sentences are made"; "he hardly said ten words all morning"

syllable - a unit of spoken language larger than a phoneme; "the word `pocket' has two syllables"

lexeme - a minimal unit (as a word or stem) in the lexicon of a language; `go' and `went' and `gone' and `going' are all members of the English lexeme `go'

morpheme - minimal meaningful language unit; it cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units

formative - minimal language unit that has a syntactic (or morphological) function

name - a language unit by which a person or thing is known; "his name really is George Washington"; "those are two names for the same thing"

string - a linear sequence of symbols (characters or words or phrases)

collocation - a grouping of words in a sentence

speech sound, phone, sound - (phonetics) an individual sound unit of speech without concern as to whether or not it is a phoneme of some language

sign - a fundamental linguistic unit linking a signifier to that which is signified; "The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary"--de Saussure

component part, part, portion, component, constituent - something determined in relation to something that includes it; "he wanted to feel a part of something bigger than himself"; "I read a portion of the manuscript"; "the smaller component is hard to reach"; "the animal constituent of plankton"

What are the morphological structure of the English words? Give the classification of morphemes.

The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs. II. Structural types of words. III. Principles of morphemic analysis. IV. Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words. I. The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes.

Types of Morphemes. Allomorphs. There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis. Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up

of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units. The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech.

Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots. Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes.

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