Translation on the Level of Phonemes/Graphemes

Phoneme is a sound of spoken language, which in the written language refers toa grapheme, or a letter symbol. Phoneme or grapheme is not a carrier of independent meaning. In language it plays only a meaning distinguishing role. But, nevertheless, in translation practice there are cases, when phonemes (or graphemes) become the translation units. Phonemes of SL are replaced by phonemes which are the closest to them in articulation and acoustic properties in the TL (or graphemes in the SL are replaced by the graphemes in the TL, which convey the identical sounds). For example,inthe English name Ruth it is possible to pick up to each phoneme the ones closest in articulation and sounding in Ukrainian. In Ukrainian it will sound like Рут, in Russian – Руфь. Greek letter beta [b], read differently depending on the place in a word, therefore different spelling and pronunciation are observed in languages: Basil – Василь, Benjamin – Вен’ямін, Martha – Марта and Марфа.

To each phoneme of the outgoing word we find an equivalent in phonemic storage of Ukrainian, in other words, here a phoneme comes forward as a translation unit.

The type of translation, where the correlation between units of SL and TL is established on the level of phonemes, is called transcription.

In case, when the correlation is established on the level of graphemes, i.e. of the graphic form or spelling of an outgoing word, and not of its pronunciation, then we speak about transliteration.

For example, a proper name Lincoln is transliterated in Ukrainian as [ Л і нк о льн ]. We just substitute the English graphemes by the Ukrainian ones; we transliterate its graphic form, (because if we use transcription, then this word will look like [ Л и нкен ], because it sounds in English just like this).

It should be noted, that the pure use of only the transcription or transliteration is rare in language practice. As a rule, combination or mixed variants of both devices occur. Consequently, the English surname “Newton”, which sounds and is written as „Ньют о н”, combines in itself both transcription and transliteration. Because the transcription of the word is [ Нь ю тен ], and transliteration in its pure form is „Невтон” and this is how this word had been pronounced in the Old Russian state (in his ode Lomonosov calls the talented Russian youth as „быстры разумом Невтоны”).

On the level of phonemes/graphemes we translate personal names, geographical names, names of celestial bodies, organizations, hotels, restaurants, newspapers, magazines, steamers, aircraft, as well as special terms of different scientific domains – lately these are Computer Sciences: трафік, хост, інтерфейс, сервер, сканер, картридж, опція, бут, кеш, в’юер, провайдер, мультимедія, etc. The translator lacking the ready made equivalents is forced to create “occasional” equivalents, and to resort to transcription/transliteration (non-experts propose the words like „делете“, „ескапе“ having their cut prototypes on a keyboard “Esc.” and “Del.”, etc.), where phoneme becomes the unit of translation.

Regarding geographical names, one should be careful here: „Hook Head“ is translated as „Хук Хед“ (not „Гачкоподібна голова“), but “Cape of Good Hope“ is translated as „Мис Доброї Надії“. Similarly, the names of organizations are translated by means of transcription/transliteration fully or partially, but in both cases consulting the related reference books to find the precedent is required:

British Petroleum – Брітіш Петролеум,

United States Steel Corporation – ЮССК,

Kamsley Newspaper Limited – Газетний концерн (трест) Кемзлі.

Celestial bodies are transcribed, but constellation names, signs of the zodiac are translated:

Діва –Virgin, Лев – Lion, Терези – Libra.

In geographical names hyphens are commonly used in translation:

Stratford on Avon – Стретфорд-он-Ейвон.

German poet Heine is rendered as Гейне, instead of Хайне, Heinrich – Генріх, instead of Хайнрішь.

Ships and spaceships Apollo, Endeavor, Discoverer are translated as Аполло, Індевор, Дискаверер ( not „Дослідник”), because nomination, and not interpretation of the meaning are significant in the given case.

There are also exceptions in translating English personal names. Names George, Charles, William, James in Ukrainian refer to Джордж, Чарльз, Вільям (Уїльям), Джеймс. But when these names mean the English and other kings, then they are interpreted as Георг, Карл, Вільгельм and Яков (William the Conqueror – Вільгельм Завойовник, James Stuart – Яков Стюарт, etc.). English names Abraham, Isaac, Moses are interpreted as Абрахам, Айзек, Мозес, but when they mean biblical characters, and then they must be translated as Аврам, Ісак, Моїсей.

Sometimes phoneme is used as carrier of specific semantic information. In this case a phoneme or grapheme is transformed into the word with a certain meaning:

Veni, vidi, vici – прийшов, побачив, переміг.

My husband lives under the law of three Т: Т елевізор, Т ахта, Т апочки.

Students live under the law of three З: З азубрив, З дав, З абув.

Americans very well know the law of three R’s:

A recent study has shown that 15% of high school graduates in America today are functionally illiterate; they lack the basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills to perform the simple tasks… It is now felt that the new teaching methods and curriculum changes that were introduced at that time have failed miserably. Now, they say, is the time for reform and a return to the basics of three R’s.

In spoken variant the first two words are pronounced with initial sound [r] and the word “arithmetic“ has colloquial variant “’ r ithmetic“.

One more very important observation: phonetic structure of words plays an extremely important role in poetry and really remains a very complicated problem for translators. All the poets and writers pay extraordinary attention to the phonetic organization of their works. Repetitions and combinations of certain vowels or consonants create a specific atmosphere of a poetic work – mystic fear (e.g.: vowels O, U), horror, nostalgia, gladness, cheerfulness, etc. Let us recall a tongue-twister or rapid speech: Карл у Клари вкрав корали. In Edgar Po’s mystic poem “Black raven” („Чорний ворон“) where there are many hissing consonants h, sh as well as ch and r – whichsay for themselves which are correctly preserved in the Russian translation).

Russian poet Vysotsky V. was successful in playing upon sounds in his poems, their rhythmic repetitions being impressive:

„Небосвод, кол-лло-кол-лла-ми раскол-лло-тый…“.

In Edgar Po’s “Chime” everything is constructed ononomatopoeia. Poem charms with richness of assonance, alliterations or initial rhymes e, vocabulary and phrasal repetitions, rhythmic combinations:

Hear the sledges with the bells, –

Silver bells!

What a world of merriment their melody foretells.

How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,

In the icy air of night!

While the stars that over-sprinkle

All the heavens, seem to twinkle

With a crystalline delight.

Keeping time, time, time,

In a sort of Runic rhyme,

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells

From the bells, bells, bells, bells,

Bells, bells, bells, –

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.

This chime, imitation of sounds, constantly accompanies every translator, who dares translate it. In 1905 Bryusov transferred the phonetic sounding of the Po’s poem as well as its basic images: motion of sledges, frosty air, star sky, allegory of time:

Внемлешь санок тонким звонам,
Звонам серебра?
Что за мир веселий предвещает их игра?
Внемлешь звонам, звонам, звонам
В льдистом воздухе ночном,
Под звездистым небосклоном,
В свете тысяч искр, зажженном
Кристаллическим огнем, –
С ритмом верным, верным, верным,
Словно строфы саг размерным,
С перезвякиваньем мягким, с сонным отзывом времен,
Звон, звон, звон, звон, звон, звон, звон,
Звон, звон, звон,
Бубенцов скользящих санок многозвучный перезвон.

For comparison there is one more translation of V. V. Koptilov is proposed:

Слухай санок передзвін –
Срібний дзвін!
Скільки сміху, скільки світла нам віщує він!
Тільки дінь, дінь, дінь
У ясну морозну ніч!
Зорі сяють у глибінь,
Промінь лине в темну тінь
І летить до наших віч.
Відгомони лун,
Наче строфи давніх рун,
У музичнім передзвоні стрівся з тоном
Тон без змін.
Слухай дзвін і знову дзвін,
Дзвін, дзвін, дзвін –
Мелодійний і веселий передзвін.

There was a movement of symbolism in the late 19^th century in French poetry, where the leading figures were Baudelaire, Mallarme, Rimbaud and Verlaine. They never formed a cohesive group, but they were united by a common interest in the mystical and spiritual nature of literature and art.

Paul Verlaine was the most universally admired as well as the most discredited among the great figures of the Symbolist period. His work recognized in poetry all the diversity of the soul as he was the poet of intimacy. To his contemporaries Verlaine was at first a character with his short beard, his fixed gaze, his uncertain steps, someone who had given himself up to the interior forces of his being. The meeting with Rimbaud in September 1871 finished what had been started by the war, the siege of Parism the Commune, the visits to the Bohemians and the absinth shops.

“La Chanson d’automne” („Осіння пісня“) by the French poet Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) is very melodious, refined, ideal, with the sound “o” repeated many times to create the atmosphere of grief and sorrow:

Les sanglots longs Des violons De l’automne Blessent mon cœur D’une langueur Monotone…	Tout suffocant Et blême, quand Sonne l’heure, Je me souviens Des jours anciens Et je pleure.
Et je m’en vais Au vent mauvais Qui m’emporte Deçà, delà Pareil à la Feuille morte.

Sounds impart melancholy, nostalgia, and feeling of untimely death.

The following is P. Grabovsky’s interpretation of the poem with mush invention, shift in stylistics and meaning and still beautiful:

Хмура осінь, голосіння Безвідрадне світове Зворушає знов боління, Моє бідне серце рве.	Проминуло життя втішне; Ледве дишу, весь поблід; Спогадавши про колишнє, Гірко плачу йому вслід.
Що ж? До краю треба плутать; Вітер лютий дме в кістки, Мов те листя мене крутить Та швиря на всі боки.

Below there is М. Tereshchenko’s translation with much shifting though but in many instances much better than previous one:

Скорбне ридання Скрипок до рання, Пісня осіння – Серце вражає, Втомно гойдає, Мов голосіння.	Весь я холону, Стигну від дзвону, Блідну з одчаю, Згадки ж юрбою Мчать наді мною – Тяжкоридаю.
Вийду я з хати. Вітер проклятий Серце оспале Кидає, крає, Наче змітає Листя опале.

Poem is constructed on sounds of repetition, which create a unique atmosphere of dying nature versus death of a human. The poet was grieving over his own departure.

Clear cut images appear when we are reading the version of A.Geleskul (А.Гелескул), Russian poet:

Издалека Льется тоска Скрипки осенней, И не дыша Стынет душа В оцепененьи.	Что прозвенит И леденит Отзвук угрозы. А помяну В сердце весну Катятся слезы.
И до утра Злые ветра В жалобном вое Кружат меня, Словно гоня С палой листвою.

Here is the N. Minsky’s translation (1903), a real masterpiece with preserving almost all the nuances of the original text, stylistical, semantic, phonetical and rythmical:

Осенний стон – Протяжный звон, Звон похоронный – В душе больной Звучит струной Неугомонной.	Томлюсь в бреду, Бледнея, жду Ударов ночи. Твержу привет Снам прежних лет, И плачут очи.
Под бурей злой Мчусь в мир былой Невозвратимый, В путь без следа – Туда, сюда, Как лист гонимый.

Although poetry is difficult to translate, and we are aware of both heavy losses and eventual acquisitions that any translation may involve, the above cited poets clearly show they more or less successfully coped with their tasks.Poetry evokes ideas, memory images, created through specific sounding. We may say that poetry is composed of sounds. If poetry were written only to express ideas and stimulate them in the reader or listener through mere words, it could be translated by choosing in the other language the words which would stimulate the same ideas. Poetry like music stimulates lots of ideas and thoughts because the words in it have some components additional to the ideas they stimulate and these are sounds. Therefore poetry has this additional affective “glow” or spirit which should be carried over by translation. When reading a poem we find ourselves in the place of a poet and see with his eyes. This brillian flash of insight illuminates us and allows to conceive and understand dreams, visions and sights that haunted the eminent poets who translated P.Verlaine’s poem. A few translations set forth below show us their perception of Verlaine’s metaphores.

F. Sologub (1923) has found exactly the same words, the same method of their linking, and the same unsurpassed melodiousness:

О, струнный звон, Осенний стон, Томный, скучный. В душе больной Напев ночной Однозвучный.	Туманный сон Былых времен Ночь хоронит. Томлюсь в слезах, О ясных днях Память стонет.
Душой с тобой, О ветер злой, Я, усталый. Мои мечты Уносишь ты, Лист увялый.

V. Bryusov (1873-1924) proposed two variants of translation, one of them being more widened, extended if compared with original and with constant rhythm and meter. In the second translation lexical imprecision is based on principle as the poet belongs to the clan of symbolists:

1.

Долгие пени, Скрипки осенней, Зов неотвязный Сплю, холодею, Вздрогнув, бледнею С боем полночи. Вспомнится что-то. Все без отчета Выплачут очи.

Сердце мне ранят, Думы туманят, Однообразно. Выйду я в поле. Ветер на воле Мечется, смелый. Схватит он, бросит, Словно уносит Лист пожелтелый.

2.

Осени стон, Как похорон Звон монотонный, Там, за окном, Все об одном Плачется сонно.	С боем часов Вздрогну. То зов Воспоминаний. Много теней Прожитых дней Жаждет рыданий!
Выйду, брожу, В сумрак гляжу, Плачет он, просит… Я – одинок! Словно листок Ветер уносит.

Translation of M.Lukash:

Ячать хлипкі Хрипкі скрипки Листопада Їх тужний хлип У серця глиб Просто пада.	Від їх плачу Я весь тремчу І ридаю. Як дні ясні Немов у сні Пригадаю.
Кудись іду У даль бліду З гір в долину Мов жовклий лист під вітру свист в безвість лину.

Translation of G.Kochur:

Неголосні Млосні пісні Струн осінніх Серце тобі Топлять в журбі, В голосіннях.	Блідну, коли Чую, з імли Б’є годинник. Линуть думки В давні роки Мрій дитинних.
Вийду на двір Вихровий вир В полі млистім. Крутить, жене, Носить мене З жовклим листям.

Children love the so called desemantisized words, words without any meaning, just a set of sounds, and this phenomenon is observed in all the nations. They make up just brilliant games starting from meaningless hand-count, which has its specific and important purpose – to develop their articulation apparatus, improve memory through learning, stir up imagination, creativity, etc.:

Эныки, бэныки, ели вареники…

Or:

Гоп, цоп, сайды, брайды, рита,
У малайды, брайды, рита
У мальчишки бришки, рита
У малайды, гоп-цоп.

Or the English children’s rhymes:

Hoddley, poddley, puddle and fogs,

Cats are to marry the poodle dogs…

Eeny, weeny, winey, wo,

Where do all the Frenchmen go?

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