Through management intervention

V - Protected Landscape/Seascape - protected area managed for landscape/seascape protection and recreation.

VI - Managed Resource Protected Area - protected area managed for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.

Habitat models can be used by PA managers in two ways. Explain the two ways.

concept of explanation and prediction

What are the threats of biodiversity?

Habitat destruction

Invasive species

Pollution

Population

Overharvesting

Climate Change

What is the absolute Number of species in wilderness area regularly low compared to non-protected area?

A wilderness is an area governed by natural processes. It is composed of native habitats and

species, and large enough for the effective ecological functioning of natural processes. It is

unmodified or only slightly modified and without intrusive or extractive human activity,

settlements, infrastructure or visual disturbance.

The definition includes four qualities of wilderness: a) naturalness, b) undisturbedness, c)

undevelopedness and d) scale; an overarching and changing variable which by definition is central

for the wilderness concept.

What are the impact of PA on local human well being?

Local communities benefiting from protected areas through:

Employment,

Continued access to traditional resources that otherwise would have disappeared or been appropriated by others,

Tourism revenue-sharing schemes,

Spillovers from infrastructure development associated with the protected area.

Protection or enhancement of ecosystem services on which the local economy depends

Rodel

protected area –is an area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means.

What are essential points of an effective management plan in PAM?

Successful management planning requires the realization that:

• management planning is an ongoing process not an event

• tries to identify future outcomes from current decisions:-

=> consider cause-effect relationships

=> identify alternative scenarios

• systematic approaches as a basis

• it must adjust to changing conditions and goals

• it involves value judgements

Planning for protected areas is thus centred not only on

analysis of the objective condition of the natural resource, but also on people and their opinions.”

Many countries have so called NPs but they hardly fulfill the requirement of NP given by the IUCN. Elaborate why this practice may be positive or negative to support the aims of PAM for a nation?

At global level, millions of people depend on protected areas as a means of subsistence. In some cases they benefit directly, through the consumption of food produced or obtained in or around protected areas. In others, employment and income provide indirect benefits which contribute to sustaining livelihoods.

The benefits of protected areas extend far beyond their immediate environs. These areas serve as natural gardens, safeguarding and cultivating biodiversity, including the wild plant relatives of crops. The biodiversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems has provided food, including fish, plants, seeds, honey, fruits, mushrooms and insects, as important components of the diets of local inhabitants for thousands of years. Protected areas also provide ecosystem services, such as pollination and pest control, with mountain areas playing a special role through their contribution to clean water and decreased disaster risks.

Positive support for natural communities benefiting from protected areas through:

Employment,

Continued access to traditional resources that otherwise would have disappeared or been appropriated by others,

Tourism revenue-sharing schemes,

Spillovers from infrastructure development associated with the protected area.

Protection or enhancement of ecosystem services on which the local economy depends.

Can the concept of ecosystem services contribute to a more successful PAM? How and Why?

All of the elements and goals which ecosystems services require and are willing to achieve, can be done as killing two birds with one stone. Foe example timber production, can be done for ecosystem services and at the same time rich a goal of PAM.

Also many medically valuable plants can and usually grow in a PA’s which can be for example a mountain region, this will mean that to save biodiversity for medically valuable plants PAM can have those plants as a ecosystem service outcome while doing their PAM plan.

How did focus of PAM in Yellowstone NP change during times, is that change representative for NPM in general?

менеджмент изменился от политики разрешенной охоты до политики невмешательста (послепопытки подкармливать копытных и убивать их хищников).

После началось восстановление естесственного баланса парка, например реинтродукция волков.

In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was created, there was yet no legal protection for wildlife in the park. In the early years of the park, administrators, hunters and tourists were essentially free to kill any game or predator they came across. The gray wolf was especially vulnerable to this wanton killing because it was generally considered an undesirable predator.

Shortly after the U.S. Army took over administration of the park on August 20, 1886, Captain Moses Harris, the first military superintendent, banned public hunting of any wildlife and any predator control was to be left to the park's administration.‪^[2] Official records show however, that the U.S. Army did not begin killing any wolves until 1914.

In 1907, under political pressure from the western cattle and livestock industries, this agency began a concerted program which eventually was called: Animal Damage Control. This predator control program alone killed 1800 wolves and 23,000 coyotes in 39 U.S. National Forests in 1907.

It is generally accepted that sustainable gray wolf packs had been extirpated from Yellowstone National Park by 1926,‪^[1] although the National Park Service maintained its policies of predator control in the park until 1933.‪^[3] However, a 1975–77 National Park Service sponsored study revealed that during the period 1927 to 1977, there were several hundred probable sightings of wolves in the park.‪^[4] Between 1977 and the re-introduction in 1995, there were additional reliable sightings of wolves in the park, most believed to be singles or pairs transiting the region.

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