Notre Dame de Paris

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ И НАУКЕ

Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования

"НОВОСИБИРСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ АРХИТЕКТУРНО-ХУДОЖЕСТВЕННАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ" (НГАХА)

Кафедра иностранных языков

«THE GREATEST MONUMENTS OF THE WORLD ARCHITECTURE»

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

по английскому языку

для студентов второго курса специальностей:

"Архитектура" 270301, "Дизайн" 070601,

"Дизайн архитектурной среды" 270302,

"Монументально-декоративное искусство" 070904

Новосибирск, 2007

Методические указания разработаны

старшим преподавателем кафедры иностранных языков

Дьячковым А.В.

Методические указания содержат учебные тексты и лексико-грамматические упражнения для студентов второго курса специальностей:

"Архитектура"-270301, "Дизайн"-070601, "Дизайн архитектурной среды"-270302, "Монументально-декоративное искусство"-070904.

Рассмотрены и утверждены на заседании

методической комиссии НГАХА от 17.10.2006 года.

Рецензенты: доктор философских наук, член-корреспондент САН ВШ, профессор, заведующий кафедрой философии Новосибирского государственного медицинского университета Т.О.Бажутина, кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры русского языка и восточных языков Сибирского государственного университета путей сообщения О.В.Бычихина.

С Новосибирская государственная архитектурно-

художественная академия, 2007

Данные методические указания разработаны для студентов второго курса следующих специальностей: архитектура, дизайн, дизайн архитектурной среды, монументально-декоративное искусство.

Методические указания состоят из текстов, носящих познавательный характер и содержащих, одновременно, полезную информацию по темам: архитектура, строительство, проектирование, история, география и др.

Представленные методические указания имеют целью, главным образом, ознакомить студентов с шедеврами мировой архитектуры с профессиональной точки зрения.

В текстах пособия широко использована профессиональная лексика и терминология, что позволяет учащимся последовательно овладевать профессиональной терминологией.

Кроме того, тексты снабжены послетекстовыми закрепительными лексическими и грамматическими упражнениями, которые направляют работу с текстовыми фрагментами в нужное русло.

Система упражнений данных методических указаний не представляет собой единственно возможный вариант работы с текстами, так как ни в коем случае не претендует на ограничение любой творческой инициативы преподавателя.

STEP PYRAMID

Egypt has always been a lush and fertile area, an area of desert fed by the great Nile river. It gave rise to civilizations long before the Pharaohs ruled the land. At first there were two Egypts: Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. They joined and were ruled by the Pharaohs. Early dynasties rose and fell but very little is now left of their building. The great works of the Third Dynasty appeared in about 2700 B.C.

It was the begining of the first period in Egyptian architecture, and it is called " The Old Kingdom (2700 - 2300) B.C. These great works were the first large-scale monuments in stone. And the earliest of them was Zoser's (= Djoser) necropolis at Sakkara (= Saqqara). The author of this building was the earliest named architect Imhotep. Imhotep was not only an architect he was also: an astronomer, writer, philosopher, physician. But the most preferable thing for him was architecture.

The necropolis of Zoser indicates how the pyramidal form evolved as a brilliant inspiration from the simple mastabas to the Great Step Pyramid.

And now we try to imagine how it looked like.

THE FIRST STAGE OF THE STEP PYRAMID

The first thing the builders did was level the ground and mark out the areas that would be taken up by the diffirent layers.

THE SECOND STAGE

The second stage was to build up the central layer to about chest height. Around this the first buttress was started, to allow the central core to expand.

THE THIRD STAGE

Each layer was build up until it was one to two yards above the one below. This continued until the outer buttress was started.

THE FOURTH STAGE

Building ramps and scaffolding were added to haul the large quantities of bricks and other materials up to where they were needed.

THE FIFTH STAGE

Once the main layers were complete, the scaffolding and building ramps were removed. The outer walls of the pyramid were then finished with smooth facing stones, which completed the process.

THE FINISHED PYRAMID

Imhotep's work at Saqqara did not stop with the step (or buttress) pyramid.It is merely the central feature of a vast complex of tombs and temples enclosed by a wall nearly a mile long, all built in quarried stone rather than mud bricks. This meant that the complex was able to survive much longer than earlier mud-built structures.

GREAT PYRAMID

During the 100 years after the first pyramid was completed, other pyramids were being built in the same way, with improvements every time. The climax of pyramid building came in about 2550 B.C., when the most colossal of all were erected at Giza, a few miles north of all were erected at Giza, a few miles north of Saqqara. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh Cheops, is 755 feet long on each of its four sides, and stood 479 feet high. (It has list about 33 feet in height, because its facing stones were robbed for later building material). The Pyramid of Khafre, still standing close by, is only a little smaller. The Great Pyramid is still one of the largest structures ever built and one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

THE PYRAMIDS AT GIZA

They remain the most colossal funeral monuments ever built. How they were built (they are solid and each weighs over 6.000.000 tons) is one of the gratest riddles of archaeology - and construction. A possible method of the techniques used is illustrated here.

LEVERS

A recent alternative to the ramp theory (opposite page) states that the pyramids were built with skilled teams of men using levers only.

TRANSPORT

The Egyptians had moved around 2.000.000 blocks of stone to build the Great Pyramid. They did so without the wheel, so each stone was dragged on sleds over rollers or planks.

STAGE ONE

First, the area on which the pyramid was to be built was laid out. The corner stones were placed precisely, then the mass of main blocks were laid out all over the base, and lastly, edge blocks were placed all the way around the outside.

STAGE TWO

The corner blocks of the next layer were levered up by teams of men. Others packed material underneath both the blocks and the levers until they were level with the top of the first course. Then they were pushed into place.

THE GREAT PYRAMID

This picture shows part of the Great Pyramid as it looked when it was completed. The pyramid was part of a complex of smaller tombs and temples that linked the pyramid to the bank of the Nile, which in those days flowed past the pyramids.

THE INTERIOR

During construction the builders were careful to incorporate tomb chambers and access passages. Before any building took place, the underground tombs were dug out of the bedrock, or solid rock, far below. Workers bashed a tunnel from the rock using hammers made from a hard stone called dolerite. The body of the pyramid contained a network of passageways and burial chambers.

SMOOTHING OFF

Smooth facing were added from the top downward until the builders had achieved a perfect pyramid shape - the largest there has ever been.

STAGE THREE

The course blocks were placed, then the edge blocks, and so on, up and up for 200 courses. It took thousands of men, working in teams, perhaps 20 years to finish.

WERE RAMPS USED?

Most books will tell you that pyramids were erected by slaves pulling 2.5 ton limestone blocks up vast ramps of earth. To be at an angle shallow enough for the stones to be dragged up, the ramp would have been three times as big as the Great Pyramid! But there is no sign of this ramp material around anywhere.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. How was Egypt fed?

2. How many parts was the earliest Egypt divided into?

3. When did the great works of Egypt appear?

4. What was the first large - scale monument?

5. Who was Imhotep?

6. What was the first stage of the step pyramid?

7. What was the last stage?

8. Whose tomb was the Great Pyramid?

9. How were the materials moved to build the Great Pyramid?

2. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases

large - scale monuments, mastaba, level, layer, buttress, ramp, scaffolding, facing stone, mud - built structures, funeral, levers, to dragg, temple, to bash, smooth, slave, limestone, blocks.

3. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:

1. Первые крупномасштабные памятники появились приблизительно в 2700 году до н.э.

2. Имхотеп является одним из самых первых архитекторов на Земле.

3. Первое, что должны были сделать строители, это выровнять площадку для возведения пирамиды.

4. Когда все основные слои пирамиды были завершены, начиналась отделка лицевых камней.

5. Великая Пирамида в Гизе самая высокая из когда - либо возведенных.

6. Чтобы построить Великую Пирамиду египтяне перевезли 2.000 000 каменных блоков.

7. Рабочие прорубили огромный туннель в скале с помощью специальных молотов, называемых " долерит".

8. Внутри пирамиды находятся многочисленные переходы и погребальные комнаты.

4. Complete the following sentences:

1. Egypt has been... and... area.

2. The first period in Egyptian architecture is called...

3. The first thing was to... the ground.

4. They did it without the... so each stone was... on sleds over rollers or planks.

5. The corner blocks of the next... were levered up by teams of men.

6. Workers bashed a tunnel using... called dolerite.

7. Pyramids were erected by slaves pulling 2,5 ton blocks up vast ramps of earth.

5. Find the sentences in Passive voice in the text and translate them.

6. Retell the text.

THE PARTHENON

It is no exaggeration to say that the ambition of the ancient Greek architects was to discover eternally valid rules of form and proportion; to erect buildings human in scale yet suited to the divinity of their gods; to create, in other word, a classicially ideal architecture. It should (also) be said that their success may be measured by the fact that their works have been copied on and off for some 2,500 years and have never been superseded. Though severly damaged, the Parthenon remains the nearly perfect building ever erected.

The name " Parthenon" is generally given since the 4th century B.C to the chief temple of Athena on the Acropolis at Athens. It is certainly to be associated with the cult of Athena Parthenos " the Virgin". The temple was designed by Ictinus. The cella was divided into three aisles by two-storey Doric colonnades. The only light came through the east doorway, and possibly filtered through marble tiles in the roof and ceiling. Behind the cella, but not connected with it, was a square chamber, officially called the Parthenon, entered from the west.

The Parthenon which represents the peak of the Greek Doric order, embodies an extraordinary number of refinements which can't but to give a plastic sculptural appearance to the building.

The continuous frieze around the top of the cella wall and above the hexastyle porticos is one of the several features that show the popularity of Ionic motifs in the 5th century Athens.

BUILDING THE COLUMNS

The columns could not be erected in single pieces, so they were cut in 10 to 12 sections or drums and ground together to make a perfect fit. The Greek buildings did not just pile them on top each other. They cut square holes in each drum, into which wooden blocks were lifted. These had 2-inch holes drilled in their centres a wooden plug connected the two pieces securely together.

GROUND PLAN

Greek architects designed temples to a precise mathematical rule to achieve the pure forms visible today. The rule was that the rectangle could be any width, but the length had to be just over one-sixth greater than the width.

STRUCTURE

Six- foot iron beams were used in the Parthenon to support the tympanum. The Greeks were the first people to use wrought iron in building.

THE PARTHENON

Although the Parthenon looks ordered and regular, the architects used to make it seem even more imposing than it really was. The columns bulge slightly and lean inward a small amount. The ones at the corners are slightly thicker than the others.

CLASSICAL ORDERS

Different ways of marking, or decorating, capitals were developed. They are called the classical orders of architecture.Below vou can see the three types of order to which all the columns in the Parthenon belonged. From left they are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What was the ambition of the ancient Greek architects?

2. How may their success be measured?

3. What is " Parthenon"?

4. Whom was this temple designed by?

5. How did the light come into the temple?

6. What kind of order does the Parthenon represent?

7. How did the Greeks build the columns?

8. What was the main rule for designing temples?

9. What material did the Greeks use the first?

10. What orders did all the columns of Parthenon belong to?

2. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:

valid rules, human in scale, to damage, cella, aisles, tiles, ceiling, square chamber, friese, hexastyle porticos, drums, to drill, plug, rectangle, wrought iron, capital, order.

3. Say true or false; and give the right variant:

1. The ambition of the ancient Greek architects was to erect perfect columns.

2. Their works have been copied on and off for some 1,500 years and have recently been superseded.

3. The name " Parthenon" is associated with the cult of Aphrodite.

4. The cella was divided into four aisles by three - storey Ionic colonnades.

5. Behind the cella there was a round chamber, entered from the east.

6. All the columns were erected in single pieces.

7. Five - foot stone beams were used to support the tympanum.

8. All the columns belonged to five types of order.

4. Complete the following sentences:

1. The ambition of the ancient Greek architects was to...

2. The temple was designed by...

3. The only light came through...

4. The Parthenon represents the... of the Greek... order.

5. The Greek buildings did not just... them on top each other.

6. The rule was that the rectangle could be any... but the... had to be just over one - sixth greater than the...

7. The Greeks were the first people to use... in building.

8. Different ways of... or capilals were developed.

9. The orders used in the Parthenon are...,...,....

5. Find all the modal verbs in the text and explain their meanings.

6.Retell the text.

THE COLOSSEUM

The Roman temple was not, like the Greek, approached on all sides by a low flight of steps, but raised on a high platform (podium) with a staircase in the front; in many cases the cellar was placed in order to house the divine Etruscan triads (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, etc.) and this cellar was faced by a deep portico, which often occupied half the platform and thus resorted to the outer structure the canonical length of the classic temple. This high podium is a first step in the development of building in a vertical direction whereby the Romans paved the way for medieval and more particularly Gothic architecture. The round temple which originated in the primitive Latin hut, was adopted for the house of the king and for the ancient cults of Vesta and of Hercules. Another specific achievement of the Roman architect was the application of the arch the vault, and the dome. The aesthetic effect of curves was well understood by the Romans; and they were the inventors of those decorative combinations of the Greek orders with the arcade, of which the more famous- the Triumphal Arch and the Arcade order had a far reaching influence.

The Romans also excleed in the creation of huge public spaces and buildings, and successive emperors tried to outdo their predecessors in constructing ever more grandiose monuments: forums (open meeting places); basilicas (roofed buildings for public assembly); temples (often in imitation of Greek models,with their Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns); circuses (huge arenas for chariot races - the Circus Maximus was 2,000 feet long and accomodated a quarter of a million people); theaters; public baths; and triumphal arches.

Many of these great buildings survive today These two pages look at one of the Romans' greatest achievements.

The Colosseum was built in the first century A.D., and still stands in the center of modern Rome.

VAULTS

The Colosseum, which seated 50,000 spectatores for gladiator combats and other spectacles, had three tiers of arched arcades on the outside and a honeycomb of arched, vaulted passageways in its vast structure. A vault is simply an arch extended lengthwise, and a semicircular one like the Romans used is a barrel vault. The later Romans discovered that one vault could cross another at right angles and still stand up; this cross vault could cover a large square area successfully, supported only at the corners on columns.

Outside, the first three levels of arcades are faced with Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.

Inside, the spectator galleries seated the most important people at the bottom, the least at the top.

The Colosseum was dedicated by Emperor Titus in A.D. 80 with 100 days of games. Two years later Emperor Dominitian added the top, Corinthian, story.

THE COLOSSEUM

The use of one material more than any other made building the Colosseum possible- concrete. The Romans, in the third century B.C. discovered that mixture of sandy volcanic ash and lime mortar combined with sand and gravel dried to a completely waterproof hard synthetic rock. This material gave the builders the means to cover large spaces.

HOW IT WAS BUILT

The Colosseum was begun by Emperor Vespasian in A.D. 70 Mass concrete was used for the 40-foot deep foundation and brick - faced concrete for most of the vaults.

Building the Colosseum took over 10 years. Beneath the arena was a vast labyrinth of passageways, stores, accomodations for combatants, and dens for the wild beasts.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the difference between the Roman and the Greek temples?.

2. What was the Roman round temple adopted for?

3. What decorative combinations did the Romans develop?

4. What was the peculiarity of Roman buildings and temples?

5. When was the Colosseum built?

6. What was the Colosseum used for?

7. How many spectatores did the Colosseum include?

8. What did the Romans discover about the vaults?

9. Where were the places for the most important people in Colosseum?

10. What material was the Colosseum built of?

11. Who began the building of the Colosseum?

12. How many years did it take to build the Colosseum?

2. Give the Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases:

step; podium; staircase; cellar; portico; to pave; vertical; direction; curve; arcade; semicircular barrel vault; concrete; mixture of sandy volcanic ash; lime mortar; labyrinth; passageways.

3. Give the explanation of the following words and notions:

podium; Etruscan triad; forum; basilica; temple; circus; concrete.

4. Translate the following phrases from Russian into English:

1. Римские архитекторы "вымостили дорогу" для средневековой архитектуры.

2. Триумфальная арка - это самый известный пример комбинации греческих ордеров с аркадами.

3. Римляне очень преуспели в создании огромных общественных зданий и пространств.

4. Колизей, вмещавший 50.000 зрителей, был предназначен для гладиаторских боев и других представлений.

5. Влиятельные люди Рима располагались внизу зрительской галереи, а простой народ - вверху.

6. В третьем веке до нашей эры был открыт бетон.

7. Строительство Колизея заняло 10 лет.

8. Под Колизеем находились помещения для гладиаторов и клетки для диких зверей.

5. Retell the text.

THE TAJ MAHAL

This architecture of the Indian subcontinent was originally of timber and mud-brick of which nothing survives. Early Budhist monuments, chaitya halls, stupa rails, and toranas clearly imitate wood construction, and timber buildings appear on relief representations. All surviving architecture is of stone, using exclusively a structural system of post and lintel, brackets, and corbels. The basically simple Indian architectural forms are generally obscured and overwhelmed by a rhythmical multiplication of pilasters, cornices, moldings, aediculae, roofs, and finials, and an exuberant and sensuous overgrowth of sculptural decoration.

Perhaps the most famous building in the world, and one which has been called the most perfect, is this great marble mausoleum built to house the body of an Indian empress by her grieving husband.

The Mogul emperor Shan Jahan began its construction, near the city of Agra, in 1630, the year after the death of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Over 20,000 workmen took 11 yers to complete the mausoleum itself, and a further 11 for the surrounding wall, mosques, gateway, and minarets. The perfect proportions, intricate decorations, and pure-white marble surface belie the size of the Taj Mahal and the massiveness of its structure.

BRICKWORK

At the building's four corners stand what are, in effect, the main parts of the structure: four octagonal towers with small domes on each summit. The inside faces of these are linked so that together they carry a central inner dome, 80 feet high and 58 feet in diameter, above the tomb of the empress.

Though pictures can give the impression that the Taj Mahal is more like a sculpture than a building, it is, in fact, taller than the great Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

THE TOMB

The central chamber of the Taj Mahal is octagonal. In the center are marble monuments (called cenotaphs) dedicated to Shah Jahan and his wife. They are surrounded by fantastically delicate carved marble screens inlaid with precious stones.

Beneath the chamber, in a vault sunken within the podium on which the visible bulk of the building stands, are the sarcophagi, or stone coffins, containing the two bodies.

THE LAYOUT

The whole complex measures 1,903 feet by 997 feet, and within this the Taj Mahal itself is 614 square feet in plan on each of its four identical facades an arch rises to a height of 108 feet.

THE DOME

The feature which caps whole design and completes the world-famous profile of the buildings is the second, or outer, dome in the center. Its outer wall curves outward in the characteristic slightly bulbous East Indian fashion before curving inward to its topmost point nearly 200 feet above the floor of the building.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What was the architecture of the Indian subcontinent originally built of?

2. What were Indian architectural forms overwhelmed by?

3. Who began the construction of Taj the Mahal?

4. Who was this mausoleum dedicated to?

5. What material was used to build this monument?

6. What kind of towers was used in this building?

7. What is the size of the Taj Mahal?

2. Give the Russian equivalent of the following words and phrases:

timber; mud - brick; Early Budhist monument; chaitya hall; stupa rail; toranas; bracket; corbel; to obscur; to overwhelm; molding; aediculae; mausoleum; mosque; gateway; minaret; tomb; octagonal; cenotaph; bulbous.

3. Give the description of:

1. the tomb; 2. the layout; 3. the Dome.

4. Say, in connection with what, these figures are given:

1630; 20.000; 58; 1,903; 108; 200.

5. Translate the following sentences from russian into English:

1. Архитектура Индии была, в основном, из саманного кирпича.

2. Основные архитектурные конструкции сильно перегружены многочисленными элементами.

3. Мавзолей Тадж Махал был посвящен умершей жене императора Шан Исахана Муштаз Махал.

4. В четырех углах здания стоят четыре восьмиугольные башни с маленькими куполами на вершинах.

5. Мраморные монументы (сенотапы) посвящены императору и его жене и содержат драгоценные камни.

6. Чтобы построить мавзолей, более чем 20 тысячам рабочих потребовалось 11 лет.

6. Retell the text.

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

This highly homogeneous traditional architecture repeated throughout the centuries established types of simple rectangular lowsilhouetted buildings constructed according to canons of proportions and construction methods which varied with each dynasty and period and varied from one region to another. Stone and brick were used for structures demanding strength and permanence, such as fortifications, enclosure walls, tombs, pagodas, and bridges. Otherwise buildings were mostly constructed in a wooden framework of columns and beams supported by a platform, with non-bearing curtain or screen walls. The most prominent feature of the Chinese house was the tile-covered gabled roof, high-pitched and upward-curving with widely overhanging eaves resting on multiple brackets. Separate roofs over porches surrounding the main buildings or, in the case of pagodas, articulating each floor created a distinctive rhythmical horizontal effect.

The emperor Tsin Shi Hwang Di became the first ruler of a unified China in the second century B.C. In an almost unimaginably ambitious attempt to unite his country, he ordered the construction of a wall right across its northern boundary, from the seas in the east to the northwest corner, in order to keep out the normadic peoples to the north. Several sections of an older wall, built from the seventh century on for the same purpose, were incorporated, but by far the greater portion of the work was new.

The Great Wall covers 1,395 miles, but it has so many loops and branches that the total length could be nearly 4,000 miles.

THE TOWERS

The watchtowers are about 30 feet square. In all, there are 25,000 along the length of the wall plus 15,000 others separate from it!

QUARRYING

Of all ancient civilizations, China's had the greatest available range of building materials: From the earliest times, mud bricks, timber, and stone were used, and later kilnfired bricks and tiles, as well.

THE STRUCTURE

The watchtowers are 46 feet high, while the wall itself averages 23 feet. Between 20 and 23 feet wide at the base, it narrows at the top but is still wide enough for a continuous roadway. The wall, when finished, was over 3,700 miles long. In the east much of it still remains in fairly good condition.

Tsin ordered that any workman leaving a crack between the stones large enough to insert a nail should be hanged on the sport.

THE WHEEL BARROW

The material used to build the wall was dug by slaves from quarries. Stones being used for the outer walls and the roadway had to be dressed, which was done by the local masons The Chinese invented the wheelbarrow in the third century A.D., which allowed the laborers to work much faster than before.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. How did Chinese building vary?

2. What is the most prominent feature of the Chinese house?

3. Who became the first ruler of a unified China?

4. What was the reason for constructing the Great Wall?

5. What is the total length of the Great Wall?

6. What kind of material did the Chinese architects use?

7. What is the watchtowers' height?

8. How high is the wall itself?

9. What is the length of the Wall?

10. What was the emperor Tsin's order?

11. What invention helped the Chinese to work much faster?

2. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

homogeneous; rectangular; lowsilhouted; permanence; enclosure walls; pagodas; wooden framework; non - bearing curtain; screen walls; tile - covered gabled roof; high - pitched; upward - curving; watchtowers; kilnfired brick.

3. Find in the text all the participles (I, II) and translate them.

4. Give the English equivalents of the following Russian words and word combinations:

однородная традиционная архитектура, ненесущие стены между колоннами каркаса, щипцовая крыша, с крутыми скатами, свесы крыши, общая длина, башня для наблюдения, внешняя стена.

5. Retell the text.

NOTRE DAME de PARIS

Many consider Notre Dame at Paris to be the final and most accomplished masterpiece of Early Gothic architecture. To be sure, the formal and, in particular, technical aspects of the structure of Notre - Dame occasionally surpass the harmonius order of Laon. The plan of Paris is certainly more ambitious, as patently indicated by the double side aisles and double ambulatory.Notre - Dame's four-story elevation, modified beginning in 1225, lacks a triforium: in its place are rose-shaped oculi (roundels) that project light to the roof.Originally, the clerestory windows were no larger than those at Noyon and Laon, but they afforded less light, as the church was appreciably taller (about 116 feet to the vault imposts) The very large and well-lighted gallery opens to the central nave through triple-arched openings. The ground level is punctuated with single rows of simple cylindrical piers. In spatial terms, the subdivision of bays-of the spatial cells - is now more complex by virtue of the increased number of bays in the side aisles. The principal shortcoming of the Notre - Dame plan is the fact that there is inadequate light in the middle and lower sections. Quite simply, the farther a surface is from the light source, the less light it receives.

As far as we can determine, the structural operations at Notre - Dame were the object of great interest. The cathedral was built according to the " thin - wall" principle; the shallowness of the window recesse and of the gallery arcade make this thinness noticeable at every level. Although the vaulted gallery could prop up the building at mid - elevation, the springings of the gallery vaults could not be braced by exterior piers above the supports separating the two ambulatories or the two side aisles. Thus, wall piers under the roof framework were needed. Given the height of the edifice, this method was deemed insufficient, and the builders turned to flying butresses as a final solution. During restoration, Viollet-le-Duc proposed a series of statements and hypotheses that have since become generally accepted: there were no flying buttresses in the choir (completed before 1182), but they did exist in the nave area (1180-1200). Moreover, these were quite sophisticated, with intermediate abutments built above the piers of the first side aisle, and outer abutments above the piers of the second side aisle, while a lower second row linked the exterior wall of the gallery to the outer abutment. Since, beginning in 1230, these were entirely reconstructed and altered, nothing can be proposed with any real certainty. Yet, there are old (albeit redecorated) abutments surrounding the apse: these could only have been supports for flying buttresses.

In addition, there is another area where the master of Notre-Dame displayed his genius at technical creation: the diagonally arched bayes of the ambulatory vaulting are replaced by an arrangement of triangular sections that divide the space in a regular manner.

Notre-Dame was the model for a great many structures of lesser dimensions and importance in the diocese of Paris and its vicinity during the last third of the twelfth century.

1. Answer the following questions:

1. What style does Notre Dame de Paris belong to?

2. How many storeys does Notre Dame de Paris have?

3. When did it begin to be built?

4. What is the principal shortcoming of Notre Dame de Paris?

5. According to what principle was this building built?

6. What changes did Viollet -le- Duc propose?

7. What is another area of master's genius in Notre Dam de Paris?

2. Give the Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

double side aisles; ambulatory; triforium; roundels; clerestory windows; cylindrical piers; bay; shallowness; vaulted gallery; butresse; abutment; apse; triangular sections.

3. Give the description of Notre Dame de Paris.

4. Find in the text sentences with Passive Voice and translate them.

5. Give the English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations:

ордeр, амбициозный, свод, арочный контрфорс, внешняя стена, апсида, треугольные секции.

6. Divide the text into logical Parts.

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