Degrees of comparison. The first question which arises here is about the number of degrees of comparison

The first question which arises here is about the number of degrees of comparison. If we take the three forms of an English adjective: large, larger, (the) largest, we ought to term them positive, comparative and superlative. But, if we define a degree of comparison as a form expressing comparison of one object with another in respect of a certain property, it would seem that the first of the three forms (large) should not be included, as it does not express any comparison. Then we would have only two degrees of comparison (comparative – larger; superlative – the largest), and a form standing apart, which may be described as the basic form. Both views have found their advocates in grammatical theory.

A more complex problem in the sphere of degrees of comparison is that of the formations “ more beautiful, (the) most beautiful ”. The question is this: Is “more beautiful” an analytical comparative degree of the adjective “beautiful”? In that case the word “more” would be an auxiliary word serving to make up that analytical form, and the phrase would belong to the sphere of morphology, or Is “more beautiful” a free phrase, not different in its essential character from the phrase “very beautiful”? In that case the adjective “beautiful” would have no degrees of comparison at all and the whole phrase would be a syntactical formation. The traditional view held both by practical and theoretical grammars until recently was that phrases of this type were analytical degrees of comparison. It may be supported by the following considerations:

1) The actual meaning of formations like “more beautiful”, “(the) most beautiful” does not differ from that of the degrees of comparison “larger”, “(the) largest”.

2) Qualitative adjectives like “beautiful” express properties which may be present in different degrees, and therefore they are bound to have degrees of comparison.

A few adjectives may have superlative degrees of comparison: good, bad, little, many, much.

The Pronoun

Meaning: Pronouns point to the thing and properties without naming them.

Form: Pronouns fall into different types. Some of them have the category of number and case.

Function:

a) Some pronouns combine with verbs (he speaks, find him), with nouns (this room).

b) In some sentences, some pronouns may be the subject, the object, the attribute, the predicative.

In grammar books we usually find the classification of pronouns into personal, possessive, indefinite, relative, etc. It is clear, however, that some points in that classification are not grammatical at all. Thus, if we say, that the pronoun ‘ something ’ is indefinite, we do not characterize it from a grammatical but from a semantic point of view. Indefiniteness of its meaning is in no way reflected either in its morphological properties or in its syntactical function.

The category of case

Some pronouns distinguish between two cases: nominative (subjective) and objective. Hence, in some grammars these pronouns are called subject and object pronouns.

Nominative case: I he she it we you they

Objective case: me him her it us you them

A certain number of pronouns have a different case system, viz. (Lat. videlicet – тобто, а саме) they distinguish between a common and a genitive case, in the same way as nouns. E.g.: somebody – somebody’s.

All other pronouns have no category of case.

The category of number

The category of number has only a very restricted field in pronouns. It is found in the pronouns: this – these, that – those, other – others. As to the pronouns I – we; he, she, it – they, it must be stated that there is no grammatical category of number here. “ We ” is not a form of “ I ”, but a separate word in its own right. There is no grammatical category of number either in the pronouns “ mine – ours; his, hers, its – theirs ”. They are different words, not different forms of one word.

There is no category of gender in the English pronouns. The pronouns “ he, she, it, etc.” are all separate words. Thus, “ she ” is not a form of “ he ” but a separate word in its own right.

The Numeral

Meaning: Numerals denote either number or place in the series.

Form: Numerals are invariable.

Function:

a) Both cardinal and ordinal numerals combine with nouns (three rooms, the third room, Chapter Three, George the Third).

b) In the sentence, a numeral is most usually an attribute, but it can also be the subject, the predicate and the object.

There are no grammatical categories to be discussed in numerals. The numerals to all intents and purposes, are invariable. So there is only the function of numerals to be considered.

The Stative

The linguistic nature of such words as “ asleep, afire, afraid ” is open to thought and discussion. These words are generally registered in dictionaries as predicative adjectives or adverbs. We take the view that they constitute a special part of speech, which may be called “ stative ” and is characterized by the prefix “ a -“.

Meaning: Words of the category of state may denote:

1) physical state of people or things (alive, asleep);

2) psychological state (afraid, ashamed);

3) state in motion (afoot, afloat).

Form: Statives are invariable.

Function:

a) Statives are most usually used after link verbs (was asleep, fall asleep). Occasionally they combine with nouns (man asleep) and adverbs (fast asleep).

b) In the sentence, a stative is most usually a predicative. They can also be objective predicatives and attributes, almost always following the noun they modify.

THE VERB

Outline

1. Meaning, form and function.

2. The structural functions of the verb.

3. The category of tense.

4. The category aspect.

5. The category of voice.

6. The category of mood.

7. The categories of person and number.

Meaning, form, function

The system of the English verb is considered to be the most complex grammatical structure of the language.

Meaning: The verb expresses a process. It is used to say what someone or something does, or what happens to them.

Form: We generally distinguish finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The grammatical nature of the finite forms is characterized by the following categories:

1) person I read He reads

2) number She was They were

3) tense I write I wrote (time relations)

4) mood If he knows it now If he knew it then

5) aspect She was dancing She danced

6) voice I wrote it It was written

Function:

a) Verbs combine with nouns (children play, play games), adverbs (write quickly, run fast), occasionally with adjectives (married young).

b) In the sentence, a verb (in its finite form) is always the predicate or part of it.

The structural functions of the verb

Notional verbs (fully “lexical” verbs, main verbs) are used independently as “full” words of the vocabulary.

Function verbs indicate the connection between “lexical” words. They have a special kind of meaning, sometimes called “structural”. Function verbs fall into auxiliary and link verbs.

- Auxiliary verbs are used to make up analytical forms.

- Link verbs (copulas) have no independent meaning; their function is to connect the subject with the predicative.

E.g.: I am writing auxiliary

I am a teacher link

I am in the classroom notional

MORPHOLOGY

THE ADVERB, THE PREPOSITIONS, THE CONJUNCTION, THE PARTICLE, THE INTERJECTION, MODAL VERBS

Outline

1. The Adverb.

2. The Prepositions.

3. The Conjunction.

4. The Particle.

5. The Interjection.

6. Modal words.

The Adverb

Meaning: Adverbs express either the degree of a property, or the property of an action, or the circumstances under which an action takes place.

Form: Adverbs are invariable. Some of them have degrees of comparison.

Function:

a) Adverbs combine with verbs (run quickly), with adjectives (very long), occasionally with nouns (the then president), sometimes with prepositions (from there).

b) In the sentence an adverb is almost always an adverbial modifier or part of it. It may occasionally be an attribute.

Some adverbs have degrees of comparison. The problem is the same as that of the degrees of comparison of adjectives.

According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:

1) adverbs of time: today, tomorrow, soon;

2) adverbs of frequency: often, seldom, never;

3) adverbs of place and direction: inside, here;

4) adverbs of cause and consequence: therefore, consequently;

5) adverbs of manner: kindly, quickly;

6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity: very, half, much, etc.

The Preposition

Meaning: Prepositions express relations between things and phenomena.

Form: Prepositions are invariable.

Function:

a) Prepositions combine with nouns, adjectives, numerals, statives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns.

b) In the sentence, a preposition is never a separate part of it. It goes together with the following word to form an object, adverbial modifier, predicative, attribute.

It is common knowledge that prepositions are the most important elements of the structure of many languages, particularly those which, like Modern English, have no developed case system in their nominal parts of speech.

It is sometimes said that prepositions express the relations between words in a sentence, and this is taken as the definition of the meaning of prepositions. This would imply that they do not denote any relations existing outside the language. However, this certainly is not true, and simple examples will show it.

E.g.: The book is on the table.

The book is under the table.

It is obvious that the prepositions express relations (in space) between the book (the thing itself) and the table (the thing itself). The difference in situations described in the two sentences is thus an extralinguistic difference expressed by means of language, namely, by prepositions. It would certainly be wrong to say that the prepositions merely express the relations between the word “book” and the word “table”, as the definition quoted above would imply.

E.g.: He will come befor e dinner.

He will come after dinner.

The prepositions denote time relations between “his coming” and “dinner”, not merely relations between the word “come” and the word “dinner”. There are cases in which a preposition serves as a link between words.

E.g.: This depends on / upon you.

Here the preposition does not have any meaning of its own. This is also clear from the fact that no other preposition could be used after the verb “depend”. The preposition on is here predicted by the verb depend.

The Conjunction

Meaning: Conjunctions express connections between things and phenomena.

Form: Conjunctions are invariable.

Function:

a) Conjunctions connect any two words, phrases, or clauses.

b) In the sentence, conjunctions are never a special part of it. They either connect homogeneous parts of a sentence or homogeneous clauses, or join a subordinate clause to its head clause.

Many authors, in defining a conjunction, limit themselves to indicate that they serve to connect words (or parts of the sentence) and clauses. This implies that conjunctions have no meaning of their own, that is, they do not express themselves any phenomena of the extralinguistic world. This is not quite true, as may be very easily shown by the simplest examples.

E.g.: He came because it was late.

He came though it was late.

The different conjunctions obviously express different relations between two extralinguistic phenomena: his coming and its being late. There is no difference whatever in the grammatical structure of the two sentences: the difference lies only in the meaning of the two conjunctions. Every conjunction has its own meaning, expressing some connection or other existing between phenomena in extralinguistic reality. Thus, a conjunction is a function word that expresses connection between things and phenomena.

The use of conjunctions is never predicted by any preceding word. On the phrase level, conjunctions connect words and phrases. They are called coordinating conjunctions. On the sentence level, conjunctions connect clauses of different kinds. Both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions can be found here.

The Particle

Meaning: Particles denote subjective shades of meaning introduced by the speaker or writer and serving to emphasize or limit some point in what he says.

Form: Particles are invariable.

Function:

a) Particles may combine with practically every part of speech.

b) Particles are never a separate part of a sentence. They enter the part of the sentence formed by the word or phrase to which they refer. (Traditional approach).

Particles usually refer to the word (or, sometimes, phrase) immediately following and give special prominence to the notion expressed by this word or phrase, or single it out in some other way, depending on the meaning of the particle. This usage is the most common one. E.g.: One just does what is reasonable.

The question of the place of the particle in the sentence structure remains unsolved. The following solutions are possible:

1. The particle is a separate secondary member of the sentence, which should be given a special name.

2. The particle is an element in the part of the sentence which is formed by the word (or phrase) to which the particle refers (subject, object, etc.).

3. The particle stands outside the structure of the sentence and must be neglected when analysis of a sentence is given.

None of these three views can be proved to be the correct one.

1. It is necessary to state what part of the sentence it is. We have to introduce a special part of the sentence.

2. It would be plausible if the particle always stood immediately before (or immediately after) the word or phrase to which it belongs. It can occasionally stand at a distance from it.

3. Rather odd. Since it is within the sentence, and is essential to its meaning, so that omission of the particle could involve a change in the meaning, it is hard to understand how it can be discounted in analysing the structure of the sentence.

Since, then, the second view proves to be impossible and the third unconvincing, we will have to stick to the first view and to state that a particle is a separate part of the sentence which ought to be given a special name.

The Interjection

Meaning: Interjections express feelings. They are not names of feelings but the immediate expression of them. Some interjections represent noises, etc., with a strong emotional colouring.

Form: Interjections are invariable.

Function:

a) Interjections usually do not enter any phrases. They stand isolated. Only in a few cases do they combine with a preposition and noun or pronoun. (Oh dear! Alas for him!)

b) In a sentence, an interjection forms a kind of parenthesis. It may also be a sentence in itself.

Interjections are part of the word stock of the language. The meaning of the interjection itself is very vague. But it is a question of lexicology. E.g.: Oh! – joy, surprise, disappointment.

An interjection is syntactically a part of the sentence loosely connected with the rest of it, and approaching parenthesis in its character.

Modal words

Modal words have only recently been separated from adverbs, with which they were traditionally taken together. By modal words we mean such words as perhaps, possibly, certainly.

Meaning: Modal words express the speaker’s evaluation of the relation between an action and reality.

Form: Modal words are invariable.

Function:

a) Modal words usually do not enter any phrases but stand outside them.

b) The function of modal words in a sentence is a matter of controversy. We will assume that modal words perform the function of a parenthesis.

The distinction between modal words and adverbs is based on two criteria:

1) their meaning;

2) their syntactical function.

SYNTAX

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Outline

1. General characteristics of syntax.

2. Basic syntactic notions.

3. Syntactic relations.

4. Sentence structure.

5. The classification of sentences.

6. The simple sentence:

1) Parts of the sentence:

- the main parts (the subject and the predicate);

- the secondary parts: (the object, the attribute, the adverbial modifier);

- the independent elements of the sentence (the apposition, the direct address, the parentheses, the insertion).

7. Word order

General characteristics of syntax

The grammatical structure of language comprises two major parts – morphology and syntax. The two areas are obviously interdependent, and together they constitute the study of grammar. Morphology deals with paradigmatic and syntagmatic properties of morphological units – morphemes and words. It is concerned with the internal structure of words and their relationship to other words and word forms within the paradigm. It studies morphological categories and their realization. Syntax, on the other hand, deals with the way words are combined. It is concerned with the external functions of words and their relationship to other words within the linearly ordered units – word-groups, sentences and texts. Syntax studies the way in which the units and their meanings are combined. It also deals with peculiarities of syntactic units, their behaviour in different contexts. Syntactic units may be analysed from different points of view, and accordingly, different syntactic theories exist.

Basic syntactic notions

The syntactic language level can be described with the help of special linguistic terms and notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning, syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relations.

Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents. The basic syntactic units are a word-group, a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main features are:

a) they are hierarchical units – the units of a lower level serve the building material for the units of a higher level;

b) as all language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature:

content side syntactic meaning

Syntactic unit = ------------------ = ---------------------------

expression side syntactic form

c) they are of communicative and non-communicative nature – word-groups and clauses are of non-communicative nature while sentences and texts are of communicative nature.

Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to produce meaningful word-groups and sentences.

Green ideas sleep furiously. This sentence is quite correct grammatically. However it makes no sense as it lacks syntactic meaning.

Syntactic form may be described as the distributional formula of the unit (pattern).

John hits the ball – Nl + V + N2.

Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit: in the word-group a smart student the word 'smart' is in subordinate attributive relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used to denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence (subject, predicate, etc.).

Syntactic position is the position of an element. The order of constituents in syntactic units is of principal importance in analytical languages. The syntactic position of an element may determine its relationship with the other elements of the same unit: his broad back, a back district, to go back, to back smth, etc.

Syntactic relations are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic units. They can be of three types – coordination, subordination and predication.

3. Syntactic relations. The syntactic units can go into three types of syntactic relations.

1. Coordination (SR1) – syntagmatic relations of independence. SR1 can be observed on the phrase, sentence and text levels. Coordination may be symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetric coordination is characterized by complete interchangeability of its elements - pens and pencils. Asymmetric coordination occurs when the position of elements is fixed: ladies and gentlemen. Forms of connection within SR1 may be copulative (you and me), disjunctive (you or me), adversative (strict but just) and causative-consecutive (sentence and text level only).

2 Subordination (SR2) – syntagmatic relations of dependence. SR2 are established between the constituents of different linguistic rank. They are observed on the phrase and sentence level. Subordination may be of three different kinds – adverbial (to speak slowly), objective (to see a house) andattributive (a beautiful flower). Forms of subordination may also be different – agreement (this book – these books), government (help us), ajoinment (the use of modifying particles just, only, even, etc.) and enclosure (the use of modal words and their equivalents really, after all, etc.).

3. Predication (SR3) – syntagmatic relations of interdependence. Predication may be of two kinds – primary (sentence level) and secondary (phrase level). Primary predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence while secondary predication is observed between non-finite forms of the verb and nominal elements within the sentence. Secondary predication serves the basis for gerundial, infinitive and participial word-groups (predicative complexes).

Sentence structure

One of the most important questions concerning the sentence, which seems to remain disputable to this day, is the definition of the sentence as a linguistic unit.

Hornby’s Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines a sentence as “words, especially with subject and predicate that form a statement, question, or request, making complete sense”.

One of the most complete definitions of the sentence may be the following:

“A sentence is a unit of speech (a word or a group of words) whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as a chief means of conveying a thought”.

A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it. Predicativity makes a sentence a unit of a special level and characterizes it as a whole.

1. The student is writing.

2. to write a letter.

1. The student is writing - is a sentence, i.e. a syntactical structure which is based on a certain structural pattern, carries information and is intended for communication in language as a system.

2. to write a letter - is also based on a certain grammatical pattern but it is intended for nomination (naming an action directed at the object and the object itself).

It is to be noted, however, that in certain contexts and speech situations the latter may also function as a unit carrying information.

E.g.: - What are going to do tonight?

- To write a letter.

Syntax studies linguistic units of communicative value. In syntax we are concerned with the rules according to which words and word-combinations are actualized in speech, used as parts of predicative units – units of communication integrated into a given situation and expressing the intention of the speaker in the form of sentences. In terms of meaning, the sentence is traditionally defined as the expression of a complete thought.

The classification of the sentences

The classification of the sentences is based on two principles:

I. According to the purpose of the utterance (or type of communication):

1) Declarative sentences asserting or denying something;

2) Interrogative sentences asking questions;

3) Imperative sentences expressing requests, commands or invitations;

4) Exclamatory sentences conveying the speaker’s feelings.

II. According to the structure:

1) Simple sentences;

2) Composite sentences.

The Simple sentence

Parts of the sentence

It is common in the grammatical theory to distinguish between the main and secondary parts of a sentence. There are two generally recognised main parts of the sentence – the subject and the predicate. As the secondary parts, their number varies slightly. The usual secondary parts of a sentence are: the object, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Other secondary parts of the sentence are also mentioned: the apposition, the complement, the direct address, the parentheses, and the insertion.

The Subject and the Predicate as the main parts of the sentence

The subject and the predicate constitute the backbone of the sentence. The definition of them is bound to contain the following items:

1) the meaning, i.e. its relation to the thought expressed in the sentence;

2) its syntactical relations in the sentence;

3) its morphological relations;

Thus, we can define the subject like this:

The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence.

1. It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate.

2. It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence.

3. It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a substantivized adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, and a gerund. It may also be expressed by a phrase or a clause.

Following the same pattern, we can define the predicate like this:

The predicate is one of the two main parts of the sentence.

1. It denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject.

2. It is not dependent on any part of the sentence.

3. Ways of expressing the predicate are varied.

Types of the Predicate

Predicates may be classified in two ways, one of which is based on their structure and the other on their morphological characteristics.

The structural classification

A Simple predicate

1. Verbal

2. Nominal

B Compound predicate

1. Verbal

2. Nominal

The morphological classification

A Verbal predicate

1. Simple

2. Compound

B Nominal predicate

1. Simple

2. Compound

The ultimate result is of course the same in both cases.

The Simple Nominal Predicate

The Simple Nominal Predicate, i.e. a predicate consisting only of a noun or an adjective, without a link verb, is rare in English, but it is a living type and must be recognized as such.

The Simple Nominal Predicate can be found in sentences where the immediate neighbourhood of the subject noun and the predicate noun or adjective is used to suggest the impossibility or absurdity of the idea that they might be connected. Sentences with this kind of Simple Nominal Predicate are always exclamatory. E.g.: My ideas obsolete!!!!!!! (B. Shaw).

The Compound Nominal Predicate

The Compound Nominal Predicate always consists of a link verb (copula) and a predicative (nominal part), which may be expressed by various parts of speech, usually a noun, an adjective, a stative, or an adverb. The term “link verb” is purely conventional but it is in common use. The idea of “link” suggests that its function is to connect the predicative with the subject.

The link verb “ be ”, which expresses these categories, and also those of number and person, is rightly considered to be the most abstract of all link verbs. That is, the one most devoid of any meaning of its own. Other link verbs have each some lexical meaning. Other link verbs are: become, get, grow, turn, seem, remain, taste, feel, look, sound, smell, etc.

Some of them do not always perform this function but may also be a predicate in themselves. E.g.: She looks nice. She looked at the board.

The Simple Verbal Predicate

The Simple Verbal Predicate consists of one verb. E.g.: write, is writing, will write.

The Compound Verbal Predicate can be distinguished as:

1. The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate (CVMP)

2. The Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate (CVAP)

1. The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate (CVMP) shows whether the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb is considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. Those shades of meaning are expressed by the first component of the predicate.

The CVMP may consist of the following components:

1) a modal verb and an infinitive (can, may, must, should, would, ought, dare, need), e.g.: I can prove everything. His aunt would not give him the photograph.

2) a modal expression and an infinitive (to be, to have), e.g.: The President was to arrive yesterday. He has to work for living.

3) a verb with a modal meaning and an infinitive or gerund (to hope, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to try: to long, to wish, to want, to desire), e.g.: I want to go to the theatre tonight.

4) modal expressions and an infinitive (to be able, to be obliged, to be willing, to be capable, to be going, etc.), e.g. Ted is able to do it.

Modal expressions are synonymous with modal verbs or verbs with a modal meaning.

2. The Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate (CVAP) shows the beginning, repetition, duration or occasion of the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb. It consists of such verbs as:

to begin, to start, to continue, to fall, to go on;

to keep on, to proceed, to stop, to give up;

to finish, to come, etc.

Here also belong “would” and “used to + infinitive” which denote a repeated action in the past.

Secondary parts of the sentence

Secondary parts of the sentence are traditionally classified into object, attribute, and adverbial modifier. But in some grammars other secondary parts can be found.

The Object

The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a stative, or a noun. (V. Kaushanska).

The object is a linguistic unit serving to make the verb more complete, more special; or limit its sphere of distribution. (N. Rayevska).

The object is a noun or noun equivalent towards which the action of the verb is directed, or to which a preposition indicates some relation. (Hernby).

Objects differ from one another; on the one hand, by their morphological composition, i.e. by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of the object, and on the other hand, in some cases objects differ by the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb (direct and indirect).

From the point of view of morphological differences we distinguish non-prepositional and prepositional objects. Prepositional objects include every object of the type “ preposition + noun or pronoun ”. This classification seems practical and useful. The classification of objects into direct and indirect ones applies only to objects expressed by nouns or pronouns. It has no reference whatever to objects expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, or a phrase. With objects of these kinds the question whether they are direct or indirect would be meaningless.

The division of objects into direct, indirect and prepositional has its own demerits. It is based on different criteria which in many cases naturally lead to the overlap of indirect and prepositional classes. E.g.: He gave her the letter. He gave the letter to her.

G.Pocheptsov gives the following classification of objects.

Types of object	Object – object	Addressed object
Sub-types of object	direct	Prepositional
Types of bond	prepositionless	Prepositional	prepositionless	prepositional
Examples	He knew this.	He knew of this.	He gave me a letter.	He gave a letter to me.

This classification seems logical, practical and useful.

Some grammars recognize three kinds of objects: the direct object, the indirect object and the cognate object.

The direct object is used after transitive verbs and refers to a person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. The verb is in the active voice. It is used without any prepositions. E.g.: I shut the window.

The indirect object refers to a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. It is usually used with verbs that take two objects.

E.g.: She gave himan interesting book.

io do

The cognate object is used with intransitive verbs though it has no preposition and is expressed by a noun which is either of the same root as the verb or is similar to its meaning. It is almost regularly used with an attribute.

E.g.: to smile a sad smile

to laugh a bitter laugh

to live a simple life

Ways of expressing the object:

1) a noun

2) a pronoun

3) a substantivized adjective or participle

4) infinitive, gerund, participle and their constructions

5) a prepositional phrase

6) any part of speech used as a quotation

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