Kelp and its Benefits

Содержание

О пособии

Study Tips

Preview Test

PART 1

Chapter 1

Vocabulary Practice 1

Chapter 2

Vocabulary Practice 2

PART 2

Chapter 3

Grammar Practice 1

Vocabulary Practice 3

Chapter 4

Grammar Practice 2

Vocabulary Practice 4

Источники материалов

О пособии

Пособие предназначено для студентов вузов, обучающихся в рамках магистерских программ. Владение иностранным языком (в первую очередь, речь идет об английском – языке современной международной коммуникации) присутствует в формулировках компетенций любой магистерской программы, соответствующей ФГОС ВО, и значимость данной компетенции в современных условиях очевидна для любого человека, получающего образование. Однако магистранты, обладающие особенно четким видением целей и задач своего образования, зачастую находят содержание и методическую базу курсов Иностранного языка недостаточно практически ориентированными. Данную проблему успешно снимает включение в курс Иностранного языка такого аспекта подготовки как ознакомление студентов со структурой и форматом заданий наиболее востребованных международных экзаменов по английскому языку. Сертификаты о сдаче международных экзаменов, таких как IELTS и TOEFL, признаются в качестве подтверждения уровня владения английским языком подавляющим большинством зарубежных вузов, а также зарубежными работодателями, отечественными и международными компаниями, работникам которых требуется владение английским языком для общения с коллегами и клиентами. Осознание возможностей, которые открывает перед студентом освоение данного курса, заметно повышает мотивацию обучающихся и эффективность обучения иностранному языку.

Преимущество обучения английскому языку на материале заданий формата международных экзаменов связано также с тем, что группы обучающихся по магистерским программам часто включают студентов с самой разнообразной профессиональной подготовкой и уровнем владения иностранным языком. Материалы для подготовки к международным экзаменам (цель которых – определить этот уровень) в таком случае – идеальное решение. Сочетание в программе курса заданий различных международных экзаменов может гарантировать расширение кругозора студентов, обогащение их знаний и навыков.

Цель курса, для которого предназначено данное пособие, – повысить уровень владения академическим (научным) английским языком у студентов магистратуры с использованием заданий формата международных экзаменов.

Пособие состоит из четырех частей, каждая из которых содержит задания на развитие всех базовых языковых навыков: чтения, письма, аудирования и говорения. Задания предполагают параллельное развитие указанных навыков в сфере Academic English и чередуются именно в таком порядке. Во всех разделах пособия также имеются задания на развитие словарного запаса академического и общего характера, и на закрепление навыков правильного употребления грамматических форм и конструкций, характерных для академического письма и говорения.

В первых трех частях основной акцент делается на освоение рецептивных видов речевой деятельности: задания на понимание письменных и устных текстов последовательно знакомят обучающихся с различными типами вопросов, а также позволяют наработать активный запас специфической академической лексики. Уровень сложности письменных текстов в пособии выше, чем уровень сложности аудирования, поскольку у студентов неязыковых специальностей чаще встречается именно такое сочетание уровней развития навыков владения английским языком. В отличие от большинства пособий для подготовки к международным экзаменам, уже на данном этапе обучающимся предлагается выполнять пересказ краткого содержания услышанного или прочитанного текста, что одновременно развивает навыки аналитической обработки текста и говорения. Письменные тексты, включенные в пособие, носят академический характер, и включают в себя информацию по различным направлениям естественных, социальных и гуманитарных наук. Понимание текстов не требует специальных знаний в соответствующих областях – необходимо только достаточное владение английским языком и общенаучная подготовка, обеспечиваемая любой программой бакалавриата. Устные тексты для аудирования представляют собою отрывки из лекций (также из различных областей науки), коллоквиумов, бесед студентов друг с другом, с преподавателями и сотрудниками университета.

Работа по развитию продуктивных речевых навыков начинается с вводных упражнений, направленных на актуализацию знаний по грамматике, необходимых для академического письма и фонетике английского языка, которая зачастую и вовсе остается без внимания в курсах программ бакалавриата неязыковых специальностей. Далее упражнения по письму и говорению постепенно формируют у обучающихся навыки владения академическим английским, необходимые для успешной сдачи международных экзаменов. Упражнения включают в себя написание эссе и устные ответы на вопросы в монологической форме. Каждая часть состоит из нескольких разделов, каждый из которых завершается упражнениями, направленными на расширение словарного запаса, а начиная со второй части – и грамматические упражнениями, восполняющими пробелы в грамматических темах, которые были выявлены при прохождении вводных заданий в разделах Writing в первой части.

В третьей части пособия навыки чтения и аудирования закрепляются с помощью заданий, включающих в себя все рассмотренные в первой части типы вопросов, в то время как формирование навыков письма и говорения продолжается (разделы 1 и 2). Наконец, все навыки объединяются в выполнении заданий Integrated Writing (чтение, аудирование, письмо) и Integrated Speaking (чтение, аудирование, говорение) (часть 4).

По завершении работы с каждой частью пособия предполагается тестирование приобретенных навыков чтения, аудирования и выполнение словарного теста, в третьей и четвертой частях тестирование должно включать, в том числе, письмо и говорение. Тесты в данное издание, которое является пособием для студентов, не входят.

Study Tips

General Study Tips

When you take an international academic test, the only way to be certain of an excellent score is to be able to read, write, understand, and speak English like an educated native speaker. You have no doubt been developing your ability in these areas for many years now. Unfortunately, this is not something one can accomplish by studying in the traditional way. However, research conducted over the years by applied linguists, psychologists, and educators has yielded a considerable amount of information on the best methods for refining these skills for the purposes of standardized tests. By keeping the following study tips in mind, you can optimize your study habits and achieve the highest possible scores with the level of language proficiency you have obtained.

1) Prepare a study area for yourself. This should include the following:

· A comfortable chair and spacious table or desk

· Suitable lighting

· Good ventilation and air quality — an open window or a house plant are good ideas

· An area free of distractions such as outside noise, television, or radio (unless you are using the television or radio to study)

· Proper space to keep all the materials you will need when studying, such as books, paper, pens, pencils, a tape recorder or other recording device, and if possible, a computer with Internet access

2) Study regularly over a long period of time. Do not study to the point of exhaustion, as this has been shown to be ineffective in retaining information.

3) "Cramming," i.e., studying intensely for a day or two before an exam, is not effective, as it strains your general health and well-being and does not lead to good long-term retention of information or skills.

4) Psychologists have discovered a principle called "state-specific memory." This means you remember things better in the same conditions that you learned them. For example, if you always study math at night, you will do better on a math exam taken at night. Use this concept to your advantage. If you know when and under what conditions you will take the exam, simulate these in your study environment and habits.

5) Be well rested on the day of the exam. Do not stay up all night studying. Also, eat healthy foods including fruits and vegetables.

6) Be relaxed and confident. Do the best that you can and do not worry excessively about any mistakes or uncertainties.

Specific Study Tips

Reading

In the reading section, you will be required to read three to five passages on varying topics. After each passage, you will answer twelve to fourteen questions that test your ability to understand vocabulary, sentence structure, and factual information, as well as implied information and the writer's intention. You will not see the questions until after you have read the passage. While answering the questions, you will be permitted to look back at the reading. You do not need any previous knowledge on the topic in order to answer the questions correctly.

Passage Types

1. Exposition - Material that provides information about or an explanation of a topic

2. Argumentation - Material that presents a point of view about a topic and provides supporting evidence in favor of a position

3. Narrative - An account of a person's life or a historical event

Question Types

Seven questions types in the reading section are multiple-choice. The other three question types are not. One is a sentence insertion activity, and the last question can be one of two types of activities: either a summary question or a table/chart question. The two final types usually give you more points.

Test Management

• There is a glossary available. Take it into consideration.

• When reading passages, ask yourself the following questions:

What is the main idea of the passage?

How is the main idea developed/supported in the passage?

• For each paragraph or new point in the passage, ask yourself why the author mentions it and how it relates to the main idea.

• For the multiple choice questions as well as the summary question type it is best to employ the strategy of elimination. On the sheet of paper you use for notes and drafts draw a segmented bar representing the four options:

└─┴─┴─┴─┘

First, identify the options which are absolutely wrong, usually, there are two of them, and put X in the corresponding segments.

Consider the other two options more closely and choose the one which makes a better and more reliable answer.

• Keep in mind that you have 60 to 100 minutes to read the passages and answer all of the questions in the reading section. This means that you can spend roughly 20 minutes on each set. Try to pace yourself accordingly. For each set, first answer the questions that you can answer easily. Then go back and answer more difficult questions. If you find that you have exceeded 20 minutes for a particular section, it is best to guess an answer and move on to the next section rather than remain on a particularly difficult question for several minutes.

Listening

In the listening section, you will hear a variety of conversations and lectures, each of which lasts from three to six minutes. A total of six listening passages will be presented. After each passage, you will then be asked to answer five to six questions about what you heard. Like in the reading section, the questions are designed to assess your understanding of the main idea, factual information, and inference. You will not be asked questions regarding vocabulary or sentence structure.

Passage Types

1. Conversation - Two people discussing a campus-related problem, issue, or process

2. Lecture - A professor presenting information related to an academic topic

3. Classroom interaction (Discussion) - Similar to a lecture, but with some interaction between the professor, and one or more students

Question Types

Questions for the listening section typically include multiple choice questions not only to consider facts, but to recognize the speaker's purpose, draw an inference, or explain how the speaker communicated certain information. You will also be asked to select multiple answers to complete a chart. For some questions you will hear a particular portion of the listening passage again and recognize the speaker's purpose, attitude, or the implied meaning of a statement.

Study Tips for Listening

• Practice listening to North American English as much as possible. Educational programs, documentaries, and news programs are excellent sources. When you are practicing for the listening section, listen to the material only once and then answer the questions. Then review the answers while listening a second or third time. Remember, though, during the real test you are only permitted to hear the conversation or lecture once before answering the questions.

• Pay attention to how pauses and intonation are used to organize the passage, emphasize important information, and show transitions.

• Make a recording of the programs you use to practice listening. Replay any sections you have difficulty understanding.

• Keep such things in mind as the main idea, the development and support of the main idea, and the speaker's reasons for mentioning certain points.

• Develop your note-taking skills. They are of great importance as you see the questions after you have heard the text. While you are listening, try to write down keywords in an organized, graphic way that makes sense to you. These notes can be studied while answering the questions, and will not be seen by test graders.

• Create a list of vocabulary words related to university campus life as well as various academic subjects.

Test Management

• Before you begin the listening section, listen to the headset directions. Pay particular attention to how you change the volume. It is very important that you are able to hear clearly during the listening section of the test.

• If you miss something that is said in a conversation or lecture, do not panic. Simply keep listening. Even native speakers do not hear everything that is said.

• Like the reading section, questions cannot be viewed until after the lecture or conversation has been completed.

• In the listening section, you must answer each question before moving on; you cannot return to a question later. If you are unsure of an answer, guess.

Speaking

The prompts for speaking questions can be categorized into six types:

Question 1: Experience (preparation – 15 sec., speaking – 45 sec.)

Question 2: Opinion (preparation – 15 sec., speaking – 45 sec.)

Question 3: Announcement and Conversation (reading – 45 sec., listening – 1-2 min., preparation – 30 sec., speaking – 60 sec.)

Question 4: Passage and Lecture (reading – 45 sec., listening – 1-2 min., preparation – 30 sec., speaking – 60 sec.)

Question 5: Conversation (listening – 1-2 min., preparation – 30 sec., speaking – 60 sec.)

Question 6: Lecture (listening – 1-2 min., preparation – 30 sec., speaking – 60 sec.)

The purpose of the speaking section is to evaluate your ability to speak coherently both on your opinions and experiences as well as on information that you have read or heard. The speaking questions fall into two categories: independent and integrated. For the two independent speaking questions, you should draw upon your own experience and knowledge. For the remaining four speaking questions, you will speak about what you read and/or hear. Your ideas need to be well organized, and the vocabulary and grammar you use must be accurate enough to be easily understood.

Study Tips for Speaking

• Master the North American English phonetic system as best as you can. Pay special attention to difficult distinctions such as: b/v, f/p, r/l, s/th, j/z, si/shi, the vowel sounds in bat/bet, it/eat, and shirt/ short. Also, practice pronouncing the diphthongs (combined vowels) as one short, continuous sound rather than two separate ones. These include the sounds in the following: ail, bye, boy, and house.

• Practice speaking with a North American inflection. This involves moving the lips and opening the mouth wider, and speaking more from the mouth and nose than from the back of the throat.

• Practice using the pauses and intonations you learn when studying for the listening section.

• Practice speaking at home. Use one of the independent writing topics as a speaking topic. Give yourself 15 seconds of preparation time. Use this time to think of your main idea and details or examples to support it. Speak for approximately 45 seconds on the topic, Also practice with 30 seconds of preparation time and one minute of speaking time, as this will be the case for the integrated exercises.

• You may start your practice writing out the complete response to make improvements, but as you move forward you should stop doing that. You will only have time to think it over and make very brief notes before your answer.

Test Management

• You will speak into a microphone attached to a headset. Before taking the real test, practice it at home to get used to the microphone.

• You can take notes and then use them when preparing your response.

• Check the time with the clock.

How Speaking Will Be Scored

ETS graders will score test takers' responses according to the following scale:

Score	General Description	Key Points
	The response answers the question or prompt well. The speaker is easy to understand and there are only minor mistakes with grammar or pronunciation.	Fluent speech that is easy to understand and follow, appropriate use of grammar and vocabulary, ideas are explained clearly.
	The response answers the question or prompt, but not all of the ideas are fully developed. The speaker can be understood, but there are some clearly noticeable mistakes in speaking,	At least two of these problems are present: poor pronunciation, poor pace of speech, wrong-word choice, limited use of grammar structures, or incorrect grammar.
	The response gives only a basic or minimal answer to the question or prompt. Most sentences can be understood, but some effort is required by the listener because speech is not fluent and pronunciation is not accurate. Some ideas are not clearly explained.	At least two of these problems are present: poor pronunciation, choppy speech (not fluent), incorrect word choices, basic grammar, poor use of grammar,, only basic ideas are presented, explanation is absent or limited
	The response is very short, does not show full understanding of the question or prompt, and is hard for the listener to understand.	At least two of these problems are present: poor pronunciation, choppy speech (not fluent), long or frequent pauses, poor grammar, use of obviously practiced or formulaic expressions, lots of repetition of expressions in the question or prompt
	There is no response or the response is not related to the question or prompt.	No response to grade, or response is not related to the question or prompt

Writing

The writing section of the test is designed to assess your ability to organize and support your ideas in essay format. You will have two writing tasks. The first task requires you to generate an essay based on your own experience. In this task, you will be given no material to work with; it will be based completely on your own ideas. The second task is based on both a reading and a lecture. You will be required to summarize the information you have read and to relate information heard in the lecture to information in the passage.

Question Types

Question Type	Type	Suggested Time	Response Length	Description
	Independent	30 minutes	300+ words	Present a personal opinion or describe an including details and examples
	Integrated: 250-300 word reading 250-300 word lecture	20 minutes	150-225 words	Contrast information presented in the reading passage with information presented in the lecture

Study Tips for Integrated Writing

• Look for magazine or newspaper articles that are about 300 words long. Time yourself as you read the articles. You should aim to read 300 words in less than three minutes. After reading, try to outline the article. Then, without looking back at the article, try to write a summary of the article from your outline.

• Practice listening to short reports given in English. There are many websites where such reports are available online. While you listen to a report, take notes. Try to summarize the report from your notes.

• Look for a variety of exercises in writing books you have studied that practice paraphrasing. Study the methods such books suggest for paraphrasing. Focus especially on exercises that practice the usage of synonyms and/or changing the grammar of given sentences in order to paraphrase them.

• Review useful phrases and expressions for citing sources. Pay attention to where these citation phrases can be placed in sentences and how the phrases should be punctuated.

• Practice your typing skills in English without relying on the automatic spell checking.

How Writing Will Be Scored

ETS graders will score test takers' essays for independent writing tasks according to the following scale:

Score	General Description	Key Points
	The response answers the question or prompt well. The essay is easy to understand and well organized.	There is good use of language, including correct choice of words and idioms to express ideas, Minor errors in grammar and word choice are acceptable,
	The response answers the question or prompt, but not all of the ideas are fully developed. The essay can be understood, but there are some dearly noticeable mistakes in the writing.	There is good use of language, including a variety of sentence structures and appropriate range of vocabulary. There are some minor errors in sentence structure, word form, or the use of idioms, but these errors do not make comprehension difficult.
	The essay gives a basic answer to the question or prompt, but not many examples or details are provided. Most sentences can be understood, but errors in grammar or word choice could make the meaning of some sentences unclear.	Little use of connectors to link ideas or show progression of thought. Sentence constructions are very simple, or there are frequent errors in more complex sentence structures. Word choice and poor grammar may make some sentences vague or difficult to comprehend.
	The essay is very short and not well organized. The ideas are not connected and examples are not explained.	Errors in grammar or word choice appear in almost every sentence. Overall, ideas are difficult to follow.
	The essay is short and confusing. Little or no detail is given to support ideas, and irrelevant information is included. Some sentences cannot be understood by the reader.	There are serious errors in grammar and word choice.
	The essay only copies words from the prompt or is not related to the topic at all.	Not enough of the student's writing is available to score.

ETS graders will score test takers' essays for integrated writing tasks according to the following scale:

Score	General Description	Key Points
	The essay includes important information from both the reading and the lecture and appropriately explains the information with regard to the prompt.	The essay is well organized; it may include minor errors in grammar or word choice, but the errors do not make sentences difficult to understand.
	The essay includes most of the key points from the reading and the lecture as they relate to the prompt. Some points may not be fully explained or the explanation may be vague.	There are several minor errors with language; some ideas may not seem connected, but there are no real problems with clarity.
	The essay has one or more of the following problems: does not include a key point from the lecture or reading, shows only a limited understanding of the information, incorrectly explains a key point, has problems with grammar or word choice that make some sentences unclear.	Errors in sentence structure and word choice may make the meaning of some sentences unclear; transitions or connections between ideas are not always easy to follow; overall, the important ideas in the essay can be understood.
	The essay has one or more of the following problems: does not include sufficient information from the reading, lecture, or both, contains many problems with grammar or word choice so the reader cannot follow connections between ideas.	Errors in sentence structure and word choice make ideas in the essay difficult to understand; readers unfamiliar with the reading and lecture may not be able to follow the essay.
	The essay includes few or none of the key points from the reading, lecture, or both. The essay is poorly written and difficult to understand.	Frequent and serious errors in grammar and word choice make some sentences in the essay impossible to understand.
	The essay only copies words from the prompt or is not related to the topic at all.	There is not enough of the student's writing available to score.

PREVIEW TEST

Reading

Kelp and its Benefits

The ocean is an ecosystem that offers a bounty that humans have found invaluable for years. Thriving on the ocean floor is a form of seaweed, or alga, known as kelp. Kelp is a cold-water species, living primarily in the temperate and Arctic waters of the Northern Hemisphere. Kelp requires clear, shallow waters, since it relies on light for photosynthesis. In cold, nutrient-rich waters, the alga grows in underwater masses known as kelp forests, which offer a habitat for some ocean creatures and a food source for others. In the marine environment, they rank among the most biologically productive territories. This particular seaweed has a variety of purposes and has been utilized for centuries in the industrial and household realms. It plays a vital role in the balance of the ecosystem, affecting ocean life and human existence as well,

The appearance of kelp resembles that of a plant, but it is not classified as such. Kelp belongs to the Protista kingdom. Members of the Protista kingdom resemble fungi, plants, or animals, but share a relatively simple organization, being either unicellular or multi-cellular with unspecialized tissues. Kelp is similar to a plant, but has a simple, multi-cellular development. The structure of the alga consists of the holdfast, the stalk or stipe, and the fronds made up of long, leaf-like blades. The holdfast roots the seaweed to the ocean floor. Unlike plant roots that grow into the ground and gain nutrients from the soil, the holdfast attaches to the top of a rocky surface, anchoring the seaweed in place. Between the stipe and each blade is a gas bladder that supports the frond and keeps it afloat.

These unusual characteristics of kelp make it a valuable commodity to harvest. Humans gather the long, flat, broad leaves of the seaweed to use for production. In the past, harvesters would encircle a stand of kelp with a cable and pull on the cable to dislodge the alga from the rocky surface of the ocean floor. This method removed the whole plant, including the holdfast. Modern procedures only cut off the fronds of the plant, leaving the long-living holdfast intact and able to continue growing. The process involves barges equipped with blades that float on the ocean's surface into kelp forests. Their purpose is to gather the top of the alga without damaging the alga itself.

Harvested kelp, once it is processed, has multiple roles in the manufacturing field. Burning kelp is a common technique to process the alga once it is removed from its environment, and the product offers manifold functions. This kelp ash, or soda ash, is primarily sodium carbonate, and it is rich in iodine and alkali. Businesses worldwide reap the benefits of utilizing seaweed, Uses for iodine span the industrial spectrum, including Pharmaceuticals, antiseptics, catalysts, food supplements, water purifiers, halogen lights, and photography. An alkali is a basic, ionic salt that dissolves in water and comes from alkaline earth metals. Components of gunpowder and lye soap are two of the numerous purposes for the alkali found in kelp.

Kelp's qualities extend beyond the inherent iodine and alkali elements. A kelp derivative called alginate is a carbohydrate used as a thickening substance in ice cream, jelly, toothpaste, and salad dressing. Another derivative of kelp is applied as an emulsifier to create a smooth texture in products such as processed foods, Pharmaceuticals, paints, and cosmetics. In Japanese cuisine, an essential ingredient is kombu, one of several Pacific species of kelp. It is used as a garnish, a vegetable, and a flavoring for broth or porridge.

A) ■ Scotland, Norway, China, and the US are now the primary producers of alga products, with smaller amounts contributed by Japan, Chile, France, and Spain. B) ■ Centuries ago, Scotland was the leading source of kelp ash production until the introduction of newer processes, beginning around the 1800s. C) ■ Production continues today. D) ■ However, despite kelp's natural abundance, a great deal of responsibility is required. Studies have shown that the number of kelp forests has decreased over the past several decades. After gathering kelp for centuries, harvesters must notice the effects of their labors on ocean life. Vital to human manufacturing as kelp has become, its original role in the environment is to provide essential food and habitat for ocean organisms as well as to keep the balance of the marine ecosystem it inhabits.

stand - a group of several plants growing together in one place

barge - a long, flat boat

emulsifier - a substance added to food to prevent liquid and solid parts from separating

Answer the following questions:

1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following characteristics is unique to a kelp forest?

(A) It grows in all types of ocean water.

(B) It requires deep water to reach its growth potential.

(C) It needs water with nutrients for food.

(D) It grows in clear waters within the reach of light.

2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about kelp?

(A) Kelp forests do not support much marine life.

(B) Kelp does not grow in warm equatorial waters.

(C) Kelp requires a lot of prey to survive.

(D) The waters of Antarctica provide a suitable habitat for kelp.

3. According to paragraph 2, what is true about the individual structure of kelp?

(A) The holdfast makes up the leafy, larger portion of the organism.

(B) The gas bladders are essential in keeping kelp upright.

(C) The root is secured on the ocean floor, allowing the fronds to float freely.

(D) The stipe serves as the main support for kelp's structure.

4. The word encircle in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) surround

(B) hide

(C) capture

(D) extract

5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about harvesting kelp?

(A) Kelp can survive if the holdfast is not destroyed.

(B) Modern harvesting procedures destroy lots of kelp.

(C) Harvesters used to gather the holdfasts for use in production.

(D) Harvesting kelp is a new process that is still changing.

6. The author discusses harvesting techniques in paragraph 3 in order to

(A) offer instructions on how to gather kelp

(B) show improvements in gathering methods

(C) describe the nature of kelp that is gathered

(D) introduce the process of involving barges

7. The word Their in the passage refers to

(A) Algae

(B) Procedures

(C) Barges

(D) Rocky surfaces

8. The word manifold in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) extreme

(B) limited

(C) multiple

(D) specific

9. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as uses of kelp-derived iodine EXCEPT:

(A) Creating weapons

(B) Purifying water

(C) Cleaning wounds

(D) Improving food

10. The word derivative in the passage is closest in meaning to

(A) impact

(B) replica

(C) product

(D) additive

11. According to paragraph 5, alginate serves as

(A) a substance used to create paint

(B) a popular garnish for certain foods

(C) an element used in manufacturing kelp

(D) a thickener for gel-like substances

12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

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