What were the characteristics of the Roman law?

- The most important legacy of the roman civilization

- After the publication of the twelve tables 450 bc the law was gradually evolved

- The roman law was developed by the teaching of the stoics, from the decision of judges and the edicts

- The roman praetors were magistrates who had authority to define and interpret the law in a particular suit and issue instruction to the jury for the decision of the case.

- The jury merely decided questions of facts.

- All issues of law were settled by the praetors.

- His interpretations became precedents for the decision of similar cases in the future

- Law of Nature-product of philosophy

- The Stoics had developed the idea of a rational order of nature which is the embodiment of justice and right

- the embodiment of justice and right.

- They argued that there existed a law of nature governing the universe to which human law must conform.

- They had affirmed that all men are by the nature equal and that thy are entitled to certain basic rights whichgovernmnets.

- have no authority to transgress.

- "True law is right reason consonant with nature

- diffused among all men, constant eternal”. -Cicero

- This law is prior to the state itself, and any ruler who defies it automatically becomes a tyrant

5) Was passed on to the Greeks-Roman alphabet was derived from it. phoenician invents an alphabet. And the alphabet was passed on to the Greeks. Roman alphabet was derived from the Greeks

- The Roman or Latin alphabet is the alphabet used for many modern-day languages.

- The alphabet is a writing system which evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet. It was the Etruscans who first developed it, and the Romans developed it further. The sounds of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles ('hands') developed. Two such styles were combined into one script with upper and lower case letters ('capitals' and 'small letters'). Modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their Roman counterparts. There are few regional variations. Also, the Roman alphabet was originated from the Greek Alphabet, then was transformed into the modern English alphabet.

6) Explain the connection between Christianity and Roman Empire.

7) explain about imperial rule called dominate - The principate (27 BC – 284 AD) is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Augustus Caesar to the Crisis of the Third Century, after which it was replaced with the dominate. The principate is characterized by a concerted effort on the part of the emperors to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance of the Roman Republic. It is etymologically derived from the Latin word princeps, meaning chief or first, the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formally head of state and/or head of government. This reflects the principate emperors' assertion that they were merely "first among equals" among the citizens of Rome. In practice, the principate was a period of enlightened absolutism, with occasional forays into quasi-constitutional monarchy; Emperors tended not to flaunt their power and usually respected the rights of citizens. The dominate. This first phase was to be followed by, or rather evolved into, the so-called dominate. Starting with the Emperor Diocletian, oriental type of styles like dominus ('Lord, Master', suggesting the citizens became servi, servants or slaves) became current, though not legal, but there could by definition never be a clear, constitutional turning point, so this appreciation remains subjective. The reality is gradual development. This process is also said to be established by the Emperor Septimius Severus; while the Severan dynasty initially began the terminology of the Dominate in reference to the emperor, the various emperors and their usurpers throughout the 3rd century appealed to the people as both military dominus and political princeps. After the Crisis of the Third Century almost resulted in the Roman Empire's political collapse, the Emperor Diocletian replaced the one-headed principate with the tetrarchy (c. 300 CE, two Augusti ranking above two Caesares), in which the remaining pretense of the old Republican forms was largely abandoned. The title of princeps was abandoned – like the territorial unity of the Empire – in favor of dominus, and the position of the Emperor(s), especially in the Western Roman Empire, was entirely dependent on his control of the armed forces. The dominate developed more and more, especially in the Eastern Roman Empire, along the lines of an oriental absolute monarchy, where the subjects, and even diplomatic allies, could be termed servus or doulos 'servant/slave' to express the exalted position of the Emperor as second only to God, and on earth to none.

8) The Emperor Diocletian (285-305), the father of the Tetrarchy, was the first to stop referring to himself as "princeps" altogether, calling himself 'dominus' (lord, master), thus dropping the pretense that emperor was not truly a monarchical office. The period when the emperors that called themselves princeps ruled - from Augustus to Diocletian - is called "the Principate", while no later than under Diocletian began "the Dominate" period.

Ancient Rome knew another kind of 'princely' principes too, like 'princeps iuventutis' ("the first amongst the young"), which in the early empire was frequently bestowed on eligible successors to the emperor, especially from his family. It was first given to Augustus' adoptive sons Gaius and Lucius.^[4]

9) What was the effect of the conquest? - Effect of conquest

Rome’s long wars abroad had the unintended consequences:

1) a marked increase in slavery due to capture and sale of prisoners of war

2)the decline of the small farmer as a result of prolonged military expeditions and the establishment of plantation system in conquered areas and the influx of cheap grain from the provinces

3) the growth of a disgruntled urban element composed of impoverished farmers and workers displaced by slave labor

• Ambitious politicians competed for their support by promising welfare benefits. The state had to feed them.

• 4) the appearance of middle class

comprising merchants, moneylenders, and men who held government contracts to operate mines, build roads, or collect taxes. they became rich and support politicians

• 5) increase in luxury and vulgar display

• particularly among the newly rich who fattened themselves on the profits of war.

• The new desire for luxury fractured the traditional values of moderation and frugality

10) Why is the reign of Augustus called the Principate and how was Augustus’ power? - The New Order

In 27 B.C. Octavian proclaimed the "restoration of the Republic".

surrender of his power

the senate awarded him the title of Augustus, meaning “revered one” and emperor. For many people he wanted to be just citizen and prefer to be called ” the title princeps, meaning chief citizen”

the period of his rule and that of his successors is properly called Principate or early Empire to distinguish it from the period of the late Empire.

Late Empire

– All the powers concentrated on him.

– He held the authority of proconsul and tribune permanently

– he controlled over the armed forces.

– The reign of Augustus signified the end of Roman Republic and the beginning Roman Empire

– Octavian, or Augustus ruled over Italy and the provinces for 44 years (31 B.C.-14 A.D.)

– stabilized the military and administrative structures of the Roman Empire. Augustus maintained a standing army

– He established praetorian guard

– Augustus inaugurated a new system for governing the provinces.

– Certain provinces were sent legates by Augustus

– Augustus also stabilized the frontiers of the Roman Empire.

– He attempted to conquer Germany but failed. Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 A.D.)

• They were content to use the Rhine as the frontier between the Roman province of Gaul and the German tribes. Social Stratification

1)Senators

• Own property worth 1 million sesterces

2)Equestrians()

• Own property worth 400,000 sesterces

3)Lower Class

• Little political power-overwhelming majority of free citizens

• Roman Morals and Social Reform

• Augustus worried about luxury of the people and insisted on Traditional Roman frugality

• He passed new social legislation in order to restore respectability to the upper classes and reverse the declining birthrate as well as marriage law.

• Other laws made adultery a criminal offense

• Despite frequent illnesses, Augustus ruled until he died at the age seventy-five in 14 C.E.

• As the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56-120) remarked, by the time Augustus died,

• "almost no one was still alive who had seen the republic”

• Augustus transformed republican Rome into imperial Rome by his long life

• His military and financial innovations, his care for the capital's poor people, and his manipulation of the traditional vocabulary of politics to disguise his power and proclaim his legitimacy.

• His stepson Tiberius succeeded.(son of his wife from her first husband)

11) What is excellent about the Roman law? - Roman Law

The law of nation was identified with natural law which led to a concept of natural rights.

all men are born equal and should therefore the equal before the law.

In practice however that principle was not applied.

The Romans did establish standards of justice applicable to all people

Basis for laws of present-day Western civilization

Entertainment

Gladiatorial Show

Roman civilization presents a paradox.

• On the one hand Roman culture and law evidenced high standards of civilization.

• On the other the Romans institutionalized barbaric practices:

• 1) battles to the death between armed gladiators and the tormenting and 2) slaughtering of wild beasts.

• Major forms of entertainment in both Republic and the Empire were wild animal shows and gladiatorial combat

The Flavian amphitheater, called the Colosseum holding 50,000 spectators.

• The name “Flavian amphitheater" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name, Flavian.

12) Explain about gladiatorial show and the real purpose of it!

Gladiators are prisoners of war and condemned criminals fought to death in the arena.

Criminals fighting with wild animals were torn down to pieces by wild animals

Numerous kids of animal contests were also staged

Wild beasts against each other, such as bears against buffaloes.

5 000(animal and people together) were killed in one day of games

on the day the Colosseum opened in a.d. 80.

• Few Romans questioned these barbarities.

• The gladiatorial games served a purpose beyond mere entertainment.

• They fulfilled both a political and a social need by diverting

• It worked as carrots, coaxing people.

13) Explain about 4 Christian parties and teachings of Jesus!

14) Explain the connection between Christianity and Roman Empire.

15) Why was Christianity able to attract so many followers?

16)

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