Theoretical grammar

1. Language levels and their language units.

System is a group of things ofr parts working together in a regular relation.

Language is a complex sestem of linguistic units (phonems, morhemes, wrds, compnation, sentecnces) that extst only in their interrelation antherdependance.

Language is an organizaed set of linguistica units reularly interrelated, unlimeitly interdempdent and interlocked.

L. is a semiotic system

4 levels:

1. Phonological (phoneme – smallest distinctive unit)

2. Morphological (morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit; word – smallest naming unit)

a. Lexical m – if builds new word

b. Grammatical m. – if builds new form of a word

3. Syntactical – word combination; sentence – the smallest communicative unit

4. Super syntactical – text

Different functions of the language:

1. External - communicative

2. Internal – representative

a. signification

b. nomination

2. Grammatical categories of the English verb.

To start – grammatically the verb is the most complicated part of speech. It posesses the categories:

1. Person

2. Number

3. Tense

4. Aspect

5. Voice

6. Mood

7. Finitude (кат. відмінюваності; this category maybe good to start with)

Категорія – група слів, явищ, які характеризуються спільними рисами.

Grammatical category is a group of linguistic units which are characterized by oppositions on the basis of different grammatical meaning (oppose each other). These groups are characterized by their individual grammatical meaning.

Finitude – opposition of forms among English which are able to express predication and which to express predication, can make sentences and cannot make sentences.

(v.

V. with person….mood are marked opposition (morphemes that distinguish them)

Non-Finite: Infinitive, Gerund, Participle I, Participle II

Marker of a category: 2 colons (::)

Person:

‘s – presence of this form in 3^rd person singular, active voice, indicative mood

‘s marks the marked member of opposition

Number:

Plural-singular

Is-are; was-were

Tense:

Traditionally – 3 members of opposition (Present, Past, Future)

Present – no ending, or ‘s

Past – ed

Future – will/shall

Some scholars believe that in Enlish only 2 members (Past, Present; or Present and non-Present) Bachudarova, Bloch,

Aspect

Continous (marked) -non-continuous (Indefinite, non-marked)

To be+ ing (or Participle I)

Voice

Passive (marked)-active (

Phase

Perfect-non-Perfect

Meaning of Perfect – precedence of the action (before the action)

Mood

Real action – unreal action

Indicative-imperative-subjunctive

3. Synthetic and analytical grammatical forms in English.

Synthetic – within the structure of the word

Analyt – outside

Meaning – lexical meaning (, grammatical meaning (adds new meaning to the forms)

Synth – lexical and gram meaning in one word

Anal – lexical in one word, gramm in diff. word

Means: synth (affixes, prefixes…), anal (word order, stress,…

4. Cohesion and coherence in the text.

Text is a unit of language; a super suntactical level unit; sequence of sentences connected logically and semantically

Realises itself in Discourse

Coherence – logical connectednes (general idea, objective – according to Stoudenets’); coherent – by content

Cohesion – grammatical connectedness -

Additive – and, or, futhermore, in fact

Adversative (протиставлення) – one the one hand, anyway

Causal:

Temporal: then,

Cataphoric – referring forward

Anaphoric – referring backward

Deixis – “to point out” – necessary to know where the action takes place – deictic markers – person, time, place.

5. Theme and rheme progression in the English sentence and text.

Functional sentence prospective – can characterize a sentence and a text (can be used both in a sentence and in a text)

Any utterance consists of three chunks: at the end we put something new to the listener (pronounced in a quick way, and slow down at the end) – rheme (focus); theme – the information that we know

Different grammatical means used to express theme and rheme

- Intonation is the strongest way to express rheme

- If no intonation – rheme at the end (end focus)

- Word-order pattern

- Constructions with introducers (there were tall birches surrounding the lake (rheme); tall birches surrounded the lake)

- Contrasted complexes – it is not for you, but for your friend

- Construction with determiners

- Constructions with intensifying particles John came here – Even John came here

Theme and rheme characterize the text as well

- Scale progression – (one sentence flows out from another)

- Practically equal sentences –

- Characterize text from different standpoints

-

6. Classification of sentences in English.

Can be classified according to the nature of predication

One member p. – nominal, verbal (imperative)

Two member p – doer of the action + action (N +V)

Acc. to structure

Simple

Composite:

Compound

Complex

Acc. to the purpose of utterance

Predicating is attributing some state or action or quality to some aobject of reality (person or things), phenomenon or event

Attributing can be logical and…

Two-member predication One-member predication

Winter is coming winter (the meaning should be deduced)

One primary predication – Simple sentence

More than one primary predication – a composite sentence

Compound – the predications are independent

Compound-complex

Complex the predications are dependent

Kinds of simple sentences:

1. According to the purpose of utterance;

a. Statements

b. Questions

c. Directives

i. Each of them can be^

1. Affirmative

2. Negative

ii. Exclamatory

iii. Non-exclamatory

Acc. to presence of secondary parts

Non-extended

Extended

Acc. to representing of structural parts

One-member nominal

One-member verbal (no smoking)

7. Notional and functional words in English.

Notional word – which denote things, objects … have corresponding matters in objective reality

Functional w. – those having no reference in objective reality (e.g.

Notional words are lexical, functional – grammatical (articles, particles, interjections)

Noun – thingness

Verb – verbality

Adjective – quality

adverb

8. Parts of speech problem in English.

1. Why do we need to divide into parts of speech – to make it easier for our children – to render our knowledge to younger generation

2. First classification was suggested by ancient Greek philosophers

i. Aristotle – logical classification: subject, predicate and popular – listen by sentences – good for Latin and Greek – lots of declinable parts of speech (notional words) – not good for English (analytical)

ii. It is difficult to divide words morphologically in English

iii. Sweet – XIX c.; introduced ‘notional’ and ‘non-notional’ parts of speech; he tried to divided according to FUNCTIONS – action,

iv. Charles Freeze – he created co-called distributional classes: 0 – adjectives; I – names; II – verbs: III – adverbs

v. Hockett – classified all the words in English into those adjectives and noun…. What to do with functional words? To which class them refer?

vi. Presently especially soviet school:

1. Semantical criterion (meaning)

2. Morphological (form)

3. Functional c. (function)

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