Main features of the function of etymological lexis in English and Ukrainian

CHAPTER 1

ETYMOLOGICAL LEXIS IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

1.1 Main peculiarities of the etymological lexis in the English language

Modern Language - is the product of a long historical development, during which it undergoes diverse changes caused by various reasons. Changes affecting all aspects (level tiers aspects) of linguistic structure, but they are different. The historical development of each level depends on the specific causes and conditions that stimulate changes in the lexical structure of language, its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical order.

Development of language inherent processes of growth and decay. For example, in English, develop analytical forms a complex system of verbal shaping, but breaks conjugation system and personal endings of verbs fall vocabulary words, new borrowing or by tumors.

The history of language reveals the processes taking place in the language at different stages of its existence, causes (factors) changes that are inherent in the language itself, called linguistic and factors associated with the history of the people, with the overall development of human society. These 2 concepts and 2 side language history ever faced.

The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the various aspects of language should lead eventually to the point of final preparation when using etymological dictionary, and mostly without it, we can explain the source of forms and phenomena that are reflected in any modern word.

In terms of the vocabulary of the English language should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least as one of Latin (as dominated by French and Latin words). But given the relative frequency distribution of words, it is clear that the Anglo -Saxon heritage takes its toll. local element in the English language contains a huge number of frequently repeated words such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and words denoting objects of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

In addition, the grammatical structure is essentially German, remained untouched by foreign influence.

It should also be noted that at various times purists tried to clear the English language from foreign words, replacing them with the Anglo-Saxon. One linguistic nationalist wrote: "Avoid Latin derivatives, use short expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words." (Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in the slogan - "Anglo-Saxon".

Now back to the first column of the table, which is a local element based English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups, and only the third dated. Word of the group have appeared in English in the V century or later. That is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. With regard to the Indo-European and German groups, they are so old that they can not be dated.

Under the Indo-European element refers to words that are common to all or most of the Indo-European language group. The English meaning of the words of the elementary concepts without which human communication. They can be grouped into the following groups:

1. relationship: father, mother, brother, son, daughter

2. human body: foot, nose, lip, heart

3. animals: cow, swine, goose.

4. plants: tree, birch, corn

5. time of day: day, night.

The role of debt (borrowings, loan-words) in different languages varies and depends on the specific historical conditions of each language. In English, the percentage of loans is much higher than in many other languages, for historical reasons, he was, in contrast, for example, Iceland is very permeable. English more than any other language was able to borrow foreign words in terms of direct contact, first in the Middle Ages succeeded each other from the British Isles foreign invaders, and later in the expansion of trade and colonization activity of most Englishmen. It is estimated that the number of primordial words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be vulgarization believe that the role of words in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or prey. Yet all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with Suppletivnye education degrees of comparison, all numbers, except second, million, billion, and finally many nouns denoting the most common and is constantly involved in the act of communication concepts in modern English native words.

The general law of uneven change elements of language as applied to the problem of borrowing is formulated as follows: the most permeable is the most moving elements of the language included in the vocabulary of a language, less permeable - to defend elements of the fund, and almost never exposed to foreign influences grammatical structure of language.

One particular influence of one language to another is always due to historical reasons: war, conquest, travel, trade, etc. result in more or less close interaction between different languages. The intensity of the flow of new loan words in different periods are different. Depending on the specific historical conditions, it is increasing, then decreasing. The degree of influence of one language to another at the same time largely depends on linguistic factors such as the degree of closeness of interacting languages, that is, whether they are closely related or not.

Misconceptions that prevailed in linguistics problems regarding loans, not confined only to exaggerate their role in language development. The approach to the topic was one-sided and formal. Researchers were interested mainly source and date of borrowing and, at best, historical causes and conditions of borrowing.

Despite the need for these data, they can not be limited. Scientists are now interested not only how and why it is borrowed word, but as it is assimilated in the language, as it yielded grammatical and phonetic rules as changed its meaning and has caused changes its appearance in the vocabulary of his adopted language.

Indeed, the need for such an approach is to borrow some Russian scientists have long pointed out. In particular, the largest Russian linguist XIX century A. Potebnya believed that we should not ask that of someone borrowed, but must ask that changed, created as a result of, the relevant stimulus excited when borrowing words from other people. But this view has not become widespread at the time and found no response.

A.A. Potebnya drew attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. "To borrow he said - then take to be made to the treasury of human culture for more than you get." This approach to the question of borrowing reveals regularities that govern the development of vocabulary, explain the phenomena occurring in it and identify their reasons to reveal connections between the history of individual words, history, language and history of the people. Explain the above example.

Considering the development of speech sport, we will not be satisfied to the fact that the word is borrowed from Old French sredneanhlyyskyy where it was desport happened with the late-Latin disportus. We are interested in what desport and disportus meant distraction, diversion, which was held at loan value and specialization in Middle English word is a little more general than at present, meaning entertainment, sports, fun, excitement. We notice that next to the word in the same period of the French language into the English borrowed many words associated with entertainment elite, due to the fact that after the XI century Norman barons became sole master of the country, the remains of an Anglo-Saxon nobility assimilate their way of life and customs and, simultaneously, the Norman dialect of Old French language. Next, we note that the word is subject to the English system of grammatical changes nouns to give the plural ending-s. It not only replaced all the sounds of English and read the last one, but no longer, as is often observed Owned by the French borrowings, the first syllable (aferezis), resulting in a sound word respect more resemble the original English words, which have a odnoskladovist. In New England the word is still undergoing some changes in the semantics and meaning exercise, preferably in the form of games and competitions. With this value, and in its new form, it is borrowed back again in French and in other languages and become international..

In the vocabulary of the English verb remains parallel to disport fun, which, however, is infrequent. Because of the systemic nature of language in general and vocabulary in particular, no new recruitment vocabulary borrowed words can not pass unnoticed for the rest vocabulary. Commonly loanwords accepts one or more values semantically closest to his words have already existed in the language. Thus there is a rearrangement. These semantic structure, ie a kind of secondary importance, may be central or vice versa. It may also occur, and often is the displacement from the language of words, nearly identical in meaning to the new word. This occurs because the long-term coexistence in the language of absolute or near-absolute synonyms can not always be liquidated or separation of their values, or expulsion from the language of unnecessary words.

Interaction between borrowing and vocabulary that they adopted the language is clearly visible on the history of words denoting concepts work, work, synonymous original to work. After borrowing sredneanhlyyskyy period verbs: labouren work, make great efforts (with st.-fr.labourer - Lat. Laborare) and travaillen hard work (with st.-fr.travailler born. Lat. Trepaliare torture), the first of these verbs about native English synonyms swincan, replaced the latter with state language in some territorial dialects. The second verb travailler not stand competition with the original werken verb and therefore has undergone significant changes in its semantic structure. Since the XVI century, its main value is to travel (modern-English. To travel). In this sense, it displaces the native verb lithenan travel, which is the rise of the verb travailler has become little used.

Later, as a new word, quite apart from the first, borrowed into English Old French noun travail, which means hard work and: flour in childbirth. It is less changed its phonetic form, retaining the typical French accent on the second syllable [trae'veil]. Since it was formed and the corresponding verb to travail painful toil and suffer in childbirth. The result is a so-called.: Doublet pair to travel - to travail.

General Law on the systemic effects of language as applied to the problem of debt can therefore formulated as follows: any change in the vocabulary of the language as the penetration of foreign borrowing entails semantic or stylistic changes to the existing language in words and synonymous changes in groups.

There are some types of the borrowings. Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. There are various degrees of “foreignness” (H. Marchand) which differentiate various types of borrowings:

1. Loan words proper – words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign. They retain their sound-form, graphic peculiarities and grammatical characteristics. E.g., ballet, bouquet, chauffeur, coup d’état, phenomenon, table d’hôte, vis-à-vis, etc.

2. Translation – loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the British language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of word-for-word translation, e.g., mother-tongue (from Lat. lingua materna), wall newspaper (from Russian), by heart (from Fr. par coeur), a slip of the tongue (from Lat. lapsus linguae). Most of the given words are international in character, e.g., Procrustean bed – прокрустоволоже, Sword of Damocles – Дамокловмеч, Heel of Achilles – Ахиллесовапята. Translation-loans are not less characteristic in phraseology: either Caesar or nothing – Lat. aut Caesar autnihil – илиЦезарьилиничего (илипанилипропал).

3. Semantic borrowings is the appearance in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language. E.g., propaganda and reaction acquired their political meanings under the influence of French. The word pioneermeant “explorer”, now under the influence of the Russian word “пионер” it means “a member of the Young Pioneers’ Organization”. Deviation and bureau entered political vocabulary under the influence of Russian (political bureau, right and left deviations).

The majority of the borrowings are remodeled according to the system of the English language system, so it is sometimes difficult to tell an old borrowing from a native word (e.g., cheese, street, wall, wine and other words belonging to the earliest layer of Latin borrowings). But there are loan words, on the other hand, that in spite of changes they have undergone, retain some peculiarities in pronunciation, spelling and morphology.

1.2 The characteristic features of the borrowings in Ukrainian

It is well known that each language is strongly intertwined with its respective society. The development and state of any language depend not only to a great extent on the society itself, but also on the economic, political, cultural contacts of that society with other nations and communities. Changes in modern society are reflected in its languages. Language is a dynamic system which reacts rapidly to the development in science and technology, resulting in constant changes in the language’s lexicon. According to A. Martine, linguistic contacts are one of the most powerful stimuli of linguistic change. Specifically, language contacts can give rise to lexical borrowings, changes in phonetic and grammatical structuresas well as changes in word formation.

To be clear, “borrowing” (loan word or lexical copying) is defined as a word that has entered into the vocabulary of one language from another and has been assimilated by itsadoptive language. This is considered the working definition for the purpose of the presentresearch.

Though words have been borrowed into the Ukrainian language for ages, the last 50 years have seen a sharp increase in the number of borrowed words, specifically from English, triggered by the intensification of intergovernmental and international contacts, itself a result of thesocial-economic transformation in Ukraine. According to V. Radchuk, the Ukrainian languageis currently experiencing an unparalleled and nearly uncontrolled flow of anglicisms.Borrowings enter the language in one or two ways: through oral speech and through written channels.

Oral borrowing took place chiefly in earlier times, whereas in recent times written borrowings have gained greater importance. Words borrowed orally tend to be short and undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Conversely, written borrowings generallypreserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their phonetic structure, their assimilationis a laborious process.

A systematic functional approach allows main functions of borrowings and neologisms to be discerned. Moreover it gives the possibility to analyze the mechanisms of the valuerealization in the process of term production or transmission, including its functioning in thediscourse, perception interpretation and axiological identification.

As the source of analysis is limited, there is a need to emphasize media discourse as the sphere of the full functioning of neologisms and borrowings. The main features of borrowingsare to be analyzed with the aim of defining the value of the borrowings as its immanentproperty. The very value is viewed as an immanent property of media discourse which definescharacteristics and specificity of discourse points functioning.

Borrowings and neologisms pose perhaps the greatest challenge to the professional translator. Technology gives rise to new objects and processes, while new ideas, conceptsand nuances stem from the media. Terms from the social sciences, slang, dialects enteringthe linguistic mainstream and transferred words make up the rest. A few years ago, 300 newwords were said to be counted in four successive issues of the French weekly Express. Ithas been stated that each language acquires 3000 new words annually. Neologisms can bedefined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire new meaning. In fact, neologisms can not be accurately quantified, since so many hover betweenacceptance and oblivion and many are short-lived, individual coinages. What is obvious is thattheir number is increasing rapidly as we become more language – as well as self – conscious.

Articles, books, dictionaries devoted to them are appearing with increasing regularity. Since they usually first arise in response to a particular need, the majority of neologisms have asingle meaning and can therefore be translated out of context, but many of them soon acquirenew (while sometimes losing the old) meanings in the Target Language.In the work of N. Popova it is stated: “when one language takes lexemes from another,the new items are usually called loan words or borrowings – though neither term is reallyappropriate, as the receiving language does not give them back”. Thus, TerryCrowley follows the preferences of the linguist William Thurston and refers to this phenomenonas lexical copying, as this term more accurately reflects what occurs.

English borrowings fill in the nominative insufficiency of the Ukrainian language. New referent, phenomena and conceptions, which peacefully or intrusively and imposingly have entered our life, require naming. New English borrowings can really replenish Ukrainian synonymic ranks.

By this way they contribute to a traditional Ukrainian notion a shade of the denotational meaning or fill in the expressive, emotive or stylistic efficiency. It’s important to admit Ukrainians’ starting for new emotional way of expressing themselves to oppose the standardized language of the Soviet times.They serve to perform the law of economy of speech effect. English words make Ukrainian sound more international owing to the political, economic, cultural and scientific, terminology employed worldwide.

On the other hand Ukrainian is evidently overloaded with Americanisms for the sake of fashion, ridiculous aesthetic preferences and language snobbism. The latest English loans have enriched mostly the neutral (terminology) and colloquial (slang, jargons) styles. The imposing intrusion of the American lifestyle and technologies recoiled on the English language by familiarity andunceremoniously pliant treatment Ukrainian speakers. Hence that it gave wayto the negligence of phonic graphical nature of the English words numerous cases of Folk Etymology and their stylistic degradation.

The mentioned above conclusions and some other valuable observations made by the author suggests the necessity of further studies ofthe problem. The practical importance of the work cannot be overestimated. It may contribute to the course of English and Ukrainian lexicology, the classes of conversational English and Ukrainian, school courses of native foreignlanguage.

CHAPTER 2

MAIN FEATURES OF THE FUNCTION OF ETYMOLOGICAL LEXIS IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

2.1 Classification of the etymological lexis in the English language

As a matter of fact, three languages contributed a great number of words to the English word-stock, they are: Greek, Latin and French. Together they account for much greater number of borrowings than all other languages put together.

Latin borrowings can be subdivided into 4 layers:

1. Early Latin loans when the Germanic tribes, of which the Angles and Saxons formed part, had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words. These words are typical of the early Roman commercial penetration.

2. In the 6th and 7th cent. due to Christianity – altar, chapter, candle, cross, feast, disciple, creed, etc.

3. The Renaissance and the Norman Conquest in 1066. Many scholars began to translate classical literature into English and as they couldn’t find English word for translation, they took Latin word and transformed it in accordance with the rules. In addition to a great number of Latin words that came into English through French, there are many words taken directly from Latin without change.

4. After the Renaissance up to the present – abstract and scientific words adopted exclusively through writing.

Early Latin loans	6th and 7th century	The Renaissance and the Norman Conquest in 1066	After the Renaissance up to the present
wine (Lat. vinum), disc (discus), pepper (piper), cup (cuppa), kettle (catillus), etc.	To this period belong the names of many articles of foreign production which were brought into England by Romans – marble, chalk, linen,etc.	genius, nucleus, formula, item, maximum, minimum, superior, inferior, prior, senior, junior, etc.	A great many Latin abbreviations usually have English equivalents – e.g. (exempli gratia) – for example, i.e. (id est) – that is to say, etc. (et cetera) – and so on, v.v. (vice versa) – the opposite, a.m. (ante meridiem).

Greek borrowings go back to an early period. In the 7th cent.with the introduction of Christianity such words as church, abbot, episcope, bishop, angel, etc. were borrowed. At the time of Renaissance the borrowing of Greek words began on a large scale. These are mostly bookish borrowings, scientific and technical terms of international currency. Here are some loan-words which linguists owe to Greek: antonym, dialect, etymology, homonym, hyperbole, idiom, lexicology, metaphor, neologism, synonym, polysemy, etc. There are numerous English compounds coined from Greek roots.

The names	Scientific appellation	English compounds coined from Greek roots
Quite a number of proper names are Greek in origin, e.g., George, Helen, Sophie, Peter, Nicholas, etc.	psychoanalysis, psychiatry, physics, philosophy, rhythm, scheme, philology, dialogue, problem, comedy, tragedy, episode, democracy	autos – self, chroma – colour, logos – discourse, phone – voice, telos – at a distance, etc. (autograph, phonograph, telegraph, telephone, telescope).

French borrowings came into English at different times. The Norman Conquest in 1066 resulted in the fact that the important places in the government, at court and in the church were filled by French speaking adherents of the conquerors. It was spoken by the upper classes of English society.

French loans in the English vocabulary may be subdivided into two main groups:

1. Early loans – 12-15th century;

2. Later loans – beginning from the 16th cent.

Early loans	Later loans	Cookery
The early borrowings from French were simple short words: age, arm, cage, car, case, cause, chain, chance, court, crime, etc. The French dominance is particularly felt in the vocabulary of law. E.g., accuse, court, fee, guile, judge, justice, penalty, priviledge.	Many of the terms relating to military matters were adopted from the language of the conquerors: arms, admiral, armour, battle, dragoon, navy, sergeant, soldier, troops, vessel, etc.	There is a predominance of French words in the vocabulary of cookery, such as: boil, jelly, fry, pastry, roast, sauce, soup.

Recent borrowings from French are frequent enough, and often these words carry a French appearance, but their number is far less than the number of borrowings direct from Latin.

Also we can classify the borrowings according to the degree of assimilation. The term “assimilation of borrowings” is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetic, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.

The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i.e. borrowings through written speech.

A classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation can be very general. There may be suggested three groups of borrowings: completely assimilated, partially assimilated and unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms.

1) Completely assimilated borrowings are found in all the layers of older borrowings. They may belong to the first layer of Latin borrowings, Scandinavian borrowings, French words.

Completely assimilated borrowings follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. Being very frequent and stylistically neutral, they may occur as dominant words in synonymic groups, they take an active part in word-formation. Such borrowings are indistinguishable phonetically. It’s impossible to say judging by the sound of the words sport and start whether they are borrowed or native.

2) Partially assimilated borrowings can be subdivided into subgroups depending on the aspect that remains unaltered, according to whether the word retains features of spelling, pronunciation, morphology or meaning that are not English. They are:

1. borrowingsot assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothing, foreign titles and professions, foreign currency;

2. borrowings not assimilated grammatically, e.g. Latin or Greek borrowings which keep their original plural forms;

3. borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically. French words borrowed after 1650 are good examples. Some of them keep the accent on the final syllable (machine, cartoon, police), others, alongside with peculiar stress, contain sounds or combination of sounds that are not standard for English: /ჳ/ – bourgeois regime, sabotage, /wa:/ – memoir. The whole phonetic make-up of the word may be different from the rest of the vocabulary.

4. borrowings not completely assimilated graphically, e.g. French borrowings in which the final consonant is not pronounced; some may keep a diacritic mark.

3) Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms are words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which are corresponding English equivalents.

Completely assimilated borrowings	Partially assimilated borrowings	Unassimilated borrowings
Latin borrowings (cheese, street, wall, wine), Scandinavian borrowings (husband, fellow, gate, die, take, want, happy, ill, low, wrong), French words (table, chair, face, figure, finish).	Foreign clothing (mantilla, sombrero), foreign titles and professions (rajah, sheik, toreador), foreign currency (krone, rupee, rouble, zloty); (phenomenon – phenomena, criterion – criteria, crisis – crises); Italian and Spanish borrowings – opera, macaroni, tomato, potato, tobacco; French borrowings:ballet, buffet, café, cliché.	Italian “addio, ciao” – good-bye, French “affiche” – placard, “coup d’Etat” – a sudden seizure of state power by a small group.

2.2 Classification of the etymological lexis in the Ukrainian language

Lexical system of the modern Ukrainian language is a reflection of every new object, phenomenon, and concept that have appeared up to and beyond the turn of the last millennium. Having evolved over the course of centuries, the lexicon of contemporary Ukrainian is heterogeneous, consisting of not only indigenous words but also of words adopted from other languages. Foreign sources have enriched the Ukrainian language in all spheres throughout its historical development.

In the 19th century the question of whether Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages are the dialects of a single language or three separate languages was actively discussed and wasn't entirely decided by linguistic factors alone. The political situation (Ukraine and Belarus being mainly part of the Russian Empire at the time) and the historical existence of the medieval state of Kyivan Rus, which occupied large parts of these three nations, led to the creation of the common classification known later as the East Slavic languages.

It can be said that most borrowings enter the Ukrainian language through mass media, entertainment, music and culture in general. In particular, mass media is the main channel though which most borrowings and neologisms flow into our language. Every day newspapers publish articles containing a great number of lexical items that are not characteristic of our native language. To some extent this may be perceived as positive progress but on the other hand excessive borrowing can cause serious damage to our language, supplanting native Ukrainian lexicon. Curiously, translators and interpreters attempting to render foreign sources of information often opt not to translate but rather borrow a foreign word. This explains why, nowadays, such words as трейдер, інтенція, андеграунд, месидж.... etc. can often be found in modern newspaper. It is preferable to use Ukrainian words whenever equivalents in the language exist. For example:

Трейдер – торговець;

Інтенція – намір, задум;

Месидж – повідомлення

Borrowings can be borrowed through transcription (football, trailer, jeans), transliteration (cruise, motel, club). Besides there can be loan words (blue stocking, collective farm).

The number and character of borrowings do not only depend on the historical conditions, on the nature and length of contacts but also on the degree of the genetic and structural proximity of the languages concerned. The closer the languages the deeper and more versatile is the influence. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely related to Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages.

Examples of English borrowings frequently encountered include: департамент, бренд, бізнес, дефолт, дилер, бізнес-ланч, інфляція, ліцензія, ваучер, приватизація, холдинг, флешмоб, емісія, маржинальний, тинейджер, спікер, провайдер, інавгурація, коаліція, піар, імідж, екстрадиція, сепаратист....etc.

In the Ukrainian language there borrowings from the Polish language, from the Check language. There also existwords borrowed from the English language are partially assimilated. Some borrowings in the Ukrainian language are restricted in word-formation.

From the Polish language	From the Check language	From the English language	Borrowings that are restricted in word-formation
в’язень, застава, ліжко, зичити	брама, праця, вагатися	футбол, хокей, дефолт, дилер, бізнес-ланч, інфляція, ліцензія, ваучер, приватизація, холдинг,	Such words as ноу-хау, откутюр have no derivatives

International words are used in both languages. Some international words can coincide only in one of the meanings. They are called pseudointernationalisms.

International words	Pseudointernationalisms
organisation, telephone, judo, banana	stress, faculty, data

In some cases folk etymology leads to the appearance of compound words which are tautological. In the word greyhound the first element of which comes from the Scandinavian grey (собака) was associated with grey meaning colour.

Sometimes under the influence of folk etymology the spelling of the word is changed. The word hiccough was written hicket but it was associated with the word cough and a new spelling was introduced.

Though words have been borrowed into the Ukrainian language for ages, the last 50 years have seen a sharp increase in the number of borrowed words, specifically from English, triggered by the intensification of intergovernmental and international contacts, itself a result of the social-economic transformation in Ukraine.

According to the Dictionary of Historical and comparative linguistics, lexical borrowing is the transfer of a word from one language into a second language as a result of some kind of contact between speakers of two languages.

Language being a social notion, the continuous evolution of vocabulary is the process which reflects the development of society. The reasons for neologisms and borrowings entering into the language are manifold: need to define or describe a new notion, to find the most exact and most expressive definition, to find the most concise equivalent (language economy), to create the image, to escape tautology, to evaluate and to characterize.

One of the primary functions of borrowings is the realization of the value: evaluation of the object, defined by the borrowing, the value of the notion, situation. The given process is determined by the needs of the society. Lexical borrowing is not simply the result of the need to name a new reality or notion but also the expression of subtle tones of individual attitudes, feelings, to evaluate a definite notion of reality. Considering the fact that the English language is the global one and that Ukraine is on the threshold of experiencing European influence not only in the sphere of mass media but also in technical sphere, politics, finance, culture and what is more important, our life. Here the controversial may be the claim that such influence is favorable if speaking about two or more nations in contact. By this I mean a successful communication between people who speak different languages but still their communication goes on.

2.3 The comparative analysis of process of loan in English and Ukrainian languages

Due to that fact, that Ukrainian is a Slavic language and English is an Indo-European language that was first spoken in early medieval England, these two languages have big differences. In my work I investigated the borrowings in these both languages. And now I can show the differences of borrowings in these languages.

Being a Slavic language, Ukrainian has a mutual intelligibility with some of them. Within Slavic, the Ukrainian language is considered to be the most closely related to Belarusian. Daco-Romanian and Hungarian language being non-Slavic languages also share the nonnegligible amount of vocabulary with Slavic languages and therefore with Ukrainian too.

In the 19th century the question of whether Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages are the dialects of a single language or three separate languages was actively discussed and wasn't entirely decided by linguistic factors alone. The political situation (Ukraine and Belarus being mainly part of the Russian Empire at the time) and the historical existence of the medieval state of Kyivan Rus, which occupied large parts of these three nations, led to the creation of the common classification known later as the East Slavic languages. The underlying theory of the East Slavic group of languages is their descent from a common ancestor. Nowadays Ukrainian, Russian, and Belarusian are usually listed by linguists as separate languages.
But we can say that these languages are really related. And I show the statistics.

Shared vocabulary with Ukrainian

Language	Common Vocabulary
Belarusian	84%
Polish	70%
Serbian	68%
Slovak	66%
Russian	62%
Hungarian	10%

Among 82 distinct phonetic and grammatical features of the Ukrainian language it shares with other Slavic languages:

Language	Features in common
Belarusian
Upper Sorbian
Lower Sorbian
Czech
Slovak
Polish
Bulgarian
Croatian
Serbian
Macedonian
Polabian
Slovene
Russian

If you already know another Slavonic language, and know the main differences between the ways words developed from their Old Slavonic roots into modern Polish, Slovak, Russian, Bulgarian etc., you can work out the meanings of many common words, for example, if you remember that the «ві-» (or «во-») beginnings of many Ukrainian words of Slavonic origin translate into “o” in quite a few of their equivalents in other languages. And now we can see some examples of related words in different Slavic languages. In the last colon there are the same words, which are in the first four colons, but in English. So in such a way we can compare the Ukrainian words, that are borrowed from the other Slavic languages and these words in English.

Ukrainian	Polish	Russian	Slovak	English
Він	on	Он	on	he
Вікно	okno	Окно	okno	window
Від	od	От	od	from
відповідати	odpowiadać	Отвечать	odpovedat′	reply
вогонь	ogień	Огонь	oheň	fire
Вісім	osiem	Восемь	osem	eight

And we see that the differences are evident.

Also I found that the words in a family of languages e.g. French, Italian, Spanish (the Romance languages) have developed from an earlier language, in this case, Latin; if you already know one of those languages, it should be easier to recognize some words in a related language.

Many basic Ukrainian words have a lot in common with words in other European (and, sometimes non-European) languages, because they have developed from one or more early “protolanguages”.

English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.

It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.

There are 5 periods:

· Germanic period or Pre-Old English

· Old English Period (600-1100)

· Middle English Period (1100-1500)

· Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)

· Present-Day English (1650-present)

The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into English in different periods and from different languages.

1. Germanic period or Pre-Old English

It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.

Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.	English(nowadays)
Butere	butter
ceas	cheese
cycene	kitchen
straet	Street
piper	pepper

2. Old English Period

Latin	Celtic
ceaster	City	Brocc	badger
Paper	Paper	Cumb	Combe
Circul	Circle	Cumb	valley

3. Middle English Period (1100-1500)

Most of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries). Also Middle English French loans: a huge number of words in age, -ance/-ence, -ant/-ent, -ity, -ment, -tion, con-, de-, and pre-.

Sometimes it's hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin.

4. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)

The effects of the Renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.

Latin	Greek	Arabic via Spanish
agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate, vindicate	anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data, ectasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy	alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral, amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee

5. Present-Day English (1650-present)

About 1650 was the start of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and significant American immigration. Words from all over the world begin to pour in during this period. Also, the tendency for specialists to borrow words from Latin and Greek, including creating new words out of Latin and Greek word elements, continues from the last period and also increases with the development of science, technology, and other fields. French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).

German	Spanish	Italian
blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies), (apple) strudel	armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang, ranch, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante	alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue, gazette (via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano, opera, pantaloons, prima donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera,

So we see a sharp difference between loans in English and Ukrainian. The main difference between loans in English and Ukrainian that words are borrowed from different groups of languages. In Ukrainian these are Slavic languages. In English these are the borrowings from the Indo-European family of languages.

Languages from which words in English and Ukrainian languages are most often borrowed will be presented in this comparative table:

Ukrainian	English
Slovak	French
Russian	Spanish
Hungarian	Latin
Serbian	Italian
Polish	German
Belarusian	Arabic
Bulgarian	Greek

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