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INTERNATIONAL TRADE
DISCOVERING CONNECTIONS
Consider the clothes and shoes you are wearing, and those you wore last weekend. Where were they made? Try to recall the meals you’ve eaten in the last 24 hours. How much of the food came from abroad? If you have them, where do your car, television, stereo, camera, watch and so on come from? Where was the last DVD or CD you bought manufactured?
Can you even imagine living in a country that did not import anything, where only locally produced food and textiles and products were available?
READING
Text 1
As you read the text, focus on the difference between absolute and comparative advantages.
International Trade
International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories.Trade in goods is known as visible exports and visible imports. Trade in services such as banking, insurance, and tourism is known as invisible exports or invisible imports.
While international trade has been present throughout much of history, its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system.
International trade is a form of specialization. Sri Lanka, for example, specializes in tea because it has an appropriate climate and soil, and skilled growers and packers.
The principle of comparative advantage is a central concept in international trade. Economic theory distinguishes between absolute advantage and comparative advantage.
A country has an absolute advantage in the production of a product when it is (a) is the only country that makes the product, or (b) can make the product at a lower cost than another country.
The theory of comparative advantage embraces two related concepts: (a) a country with absolute advantages in a number of different products should concentrate on the products which bring the greatest advantage, and (b) a country with no absolute advantages should concentrate on the products which bring the least disadvantage.
The majority of economists believe that international trade should be based on comparative advantage and free trade. Free trade is a system which allows certain countries to buy and sell goods from each other without any financial restrictions.
The effects of free trade can be determined by comparing the domestic price without trade to the world price. A low domestic price indicates that the country has a comparative advantage in producing the good and that the country will become an exporter. A high domestic price indicates that the rest of the world has a comparative advantage in producing the good and that the country will become an importer.
When a country allows trade and becomes an exporter of a good, producers of the good are better off, and consumers of the good are worse off. When a country allows trade and becomes an importer of a good, consumers are better off, and producers are worse off. In both cases, the gains from trade exceed the losses. The other economic benefits of trade are:
Increased variety of goods: Goods produced in different countries are not exactly the same. Free trade gives consumers in all countries greater variety from which to choose.
Lower costs through economies of scale: Some goods can be produced at low cost only if they are produced in large quantities – a phenomenon called economies of scale. A firm in a small country cannot take full advantage of economies of scale if it can sell only in a small domestic market. Free trade gives firms access to larger world markets and allows them to realize economies of scale more fully.
Increased competition: A company shielded from foreign competitors is more likely to have market power, which in turn gives it ability to raise prices above competitive levels. This is the type of market failure. Opening up trade fosters competition and gives the invisible hand a better chance to work its magic.
Enhanced flow of ideas: The transfer of technological advances around the world is often thought to be linked to international trade in the goods that embody those advances.
International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation. In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders.
Vocabulary Focus
Ex. 1.
export: /’ekspo:t/ or /ik’spo:t/?
1. Look at these words. Where is the stress when the word is used as a noun and when it is a verb?
| a. export b. import c. decrease | d. increase e. progress f. record | g. refund h. produce i. permit | j. transport k. insult l. protest |
2. Fill the gaps with one of the words above in its correct form.
a. Scotland _____ a lot of its food from other countries. Its _____ includes oil, beef, and whisky.
b. The negotiations are in _____ now.
c. The ministers are worried. There has been an _____ in the number of unemployed. But the number of crimes has _____, so that’s good news.
d. There was a demonstration yesterday. People were _____ about blood sports.
e. People usually buy CDs these days. Not many people buy _____ any more.
f. Britain _____ about 75% of its own oil.
Ex. 2. Match the following common collocations with their Russian equivalents:
| 1) economies of scale 2) technological advance 3) absolute advantage 4) comparative advantage 5) form of specialization 6) visible export 7) increased competition 8) invisible import 9) benefits of trade | a) невидимый импорт b) сравнительное преимущество c) абсолютное преимущество d) экономия на масштабе e) видимый экспорт f) технический прогресс g) преимущества торговли h) форма специализации i) возросшая конкуренция |
Ex. 3. Match each headword on the left with a set of examples on the right.
| 1) imports 2) free trade 3) domestic market 4) exports 5) open market | a) wheat, oil, being brought into the country b) no restrictions on imports c) rice, wool being sent abroad d) customers in the same country f) products available to anyone willing to buy |
Comprehension
Ex. 1. Based on your understanding of the text, are the following TRUE or FALSE? Explain why.
1. International trade is a form of specialization.
2. Comparative advantage is the ability of a country to produce a good using fewer resources than another country.
3. The principle of absolute advantage is a central concept in international trade.
4. A high domestic price indicates that the country has a comparative advantage in producing the good and that the country will become an exporter.
5. Opening up trade fosters competition and gives the invisible hand a better chance to work its magic.
6. Some goods can be produced at low cost only if they are produced in small quantities.
7. Free trade gives firms access to larger world markets and allows them to realize economies of scale more fully.
Ex. 2. Find in the text the answers to the following questions.
1. What is international trade?
2. How can you define free trade?
3. What is absolute advantage?
4. What two related concepts does the theory of comparative advantage embrace?
5. What are the benefits of international trade? Which of them do you find the most important?
Ex. 3. Write questions, relating to the text, to which these could be the answers.
1. People have strived to expand their trading as far as technology allowed.
2. A form of specialization.
3. The ability of a country to produce a good using fewer resources than another country.
4. The ability of a country to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country.
5. Access to larger world markets.
Ex. 4. Speak on:
1. the international trade as a form of specialization;
2. the principle of comparative advantage and its role in international trade;
3. the benefits of international trade.
Text 2
Read the text explaining the existence of artificial barriers to international trade and do the exercises that follow:
Trade Barriers
There is an everlasting argument between economists and governments on the issue of free trade. Despite the advice of economists to follow the concept of free trade, every nation protects its own domestic producers to some degree from foreign competition. Protectionism is the government’s use of special measures to protect domestic producers from foreign competition. Governments use different barriers to:
– protect strategic industries – notably agricultural – without which the country would be in danger if there was a war;
– maintain a favourable balance of payments, which is the total of all payments made to foreign countries minus total receipts from abroad. It is closely affected by a nation’s balance of trade, which is the total value of its exports minus the total value of its imports;
– protect against dumping (the selling of goods abroad at below cost price in order to destroy or weaken competitors or to earn foreign currency to pay for necessary imports);
– retaliate against restrictions imposed by other countries;
– protect ‘infant industries’ until they are large enough to achieve economies of scale and strong enough to compete internationally.
The most common methods to limit international trade are tariffs and quotas. A tariff is a tax collected on imported goods. Many tariffs, called revenue tariffs, are levied only to raise money for the government. Others are protective tariffs,established to discourage importation of certain goods or to raise their price so as to reduce competition with domestic goods of the same type. A quota is a legal limit on the quantity of specific goods that may be imported. An embargo is a final extreme quota. It actually prohibits trade in certain goods or with certain countries.
To illustrate an argument between economists and governments and better understand economists’ view of free trade, let’s suppose that the imaginary country of Isoland ignores the advice of its economic team and decides not to allow free trade in steel. The country remains in the equilibrium without international trade.
Then, one day, some Isolandian inventor discovers a new way to make steel at very low cost. The process is quite mysterious, however, and the inventor insists on keeping it a secret. What is odd is that the inventor doesn’t need any workers or iron to make steel. The only input he requires is wheat.
The inventor is hailed as genius. Because steel is used in so many products, the invention lowers the cost of many goods and allows all Isolandians to enjoy a higher standard of living. Workers who had previously produced steel do suffer when their factories close, but eventually they find work in other industries. Some become farmers and grow the wheat that the inventor turns into steel. Others enter new industries that emerge as a result of higher Isolandian living standards. Everyone understands that the displacement of these workers is an inevitable part of progress.
After several years, a newspaper reporter decides to investigate this mysterious new steel process. She sneaks into inventor’s factory and learns that the inventor is a fraud. The inventor has not been making steel at all. Instead, he has been smuggling wheat abroad in exchange for steel from other countries. The only thing that the inventor has discovered was the gains from international trade.
When the truth is revealed, the government shuts down the inventor’s operation. The price of steel rises, and workers return to jobs to steel factories. Living standards in Isoland fall back to their former levels. The inventor is jailed and held up top public ridicule. After all, he was no inventor. He was just an economist.
Ex. 1. Match the Russian word combinations with their English equivalents:
| a) таможенный сбор b) составлять квоту c) превосходить квоту d) общая выручка e) вводить/налагать ограничения f) снимать запрет g) фискальный тариф/пошлина h) под запретом i) протекционистская пошлина j) новая отрасль промышленности | 1) to exceed one’s quota 2) under embargo 3) protective tariff 4) to remove an embargo 5) infant industry 6) customs duty 7) to fill/fulfil/meet a quota 8) revenue tariff 9) to impose/place/put restrictions on 10) total receipts |
Ex. 2. Match the words in column A with their synonyms in column B.
| A | B |
| 1) tariff (n) | a) benefit/profit (n) |
| 2) embargo (n) | b) prohibition/interdiction (n) |
| 3) restriction (n) | c) limitation/restraint (n) |
| 4) advantage (n) | d) complete/total (a) |
| 5) quota (n) | e) relative (a) |
| 6) absolute (a) | f) fixed amount |
| 7) comparative (a) | g) rate (n) |
Ex. 3. There is a logical connection among three of the four words in each of the following groups. Which is the odd one out, and why?
1) absolute advantage – barriers – comparative advantage – free trade
2) balance – deficit – dumping – surplus
3) banking – insurance – merchandise – tourism
4) barter – import substitution – infant industries – tariff barriers
5) liberalize – protect – subsidize – substitute
Ex. 4. Fill in the blanks, use the prompts below:
1. ________ means that each nation specializes in a product for which its opportunity cost is lower in terms of the production of another product and then nations trade.
2. ________ benefits a nation as a whole but individuals may lose jobs and incomes from the competition from foreign goods and services.
3. A government’s use of embargoes, tariffs, quotas, and other methods to protect particular domestic industries by imposing barriers that reduce imports is called ________.
4. A (an) ________ prohibits the import or export of particular goods and a (an) ________ discourages imports by making them more expensive. These trade barriers often result primarily from domestic groups that exert political pressure to gain from these barriers.
5. The ________ is a summary bookkeeping record of all the international transactions a country makes during a year. It is divided into different accounts including the current account, the capital account and the statistical discrepancy.
6. The ________ measures only goods (not services) that a nation exports and imports. It is the most widely reported and largest part of the current account.
7. A (an) ________ is the price of one nation’s currency in terms of another nation’s currency. The intersection of the supply and demand curves for dollars determines the number of units of a foreign currency per dollar.
8. A ________ is a limit on the quantity of a good that may be imported in a given time period.
Words for reference: comparative advantage; free trade; protectionism; embargo; tariff; balance of payments; balance of trade; exchange rate; quota.
Text 3
As you read the passage, focus on the WTO origin and its functions.
The WTO
During the worldwide depression of the 1930s, when one nation raised its tariffs to protect its industries, other nations retaliated by raising their tariffs. In 1947, most of the world’s industrialised nations mutually agreed to end the tariff wars by signing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade, an internationally organization set up in 1947, had the objectives of encouraging international trade, of making tariffs the only form of protectionism, and of reducing these as much as possible. The final GATT agreement – including services, copyright, and investment, as well as trade in goods – was signed in Marrakech in 1994, and the organization was superseded by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
Nowadays the WTO has more than 150 members. The WTO is staffed by an international team of trade specialists. It can influence international trade discussions, almost always in a free-trade direction, although on controversial issues member governments are likely to dig in their heels before making any compromises or deals. The WTO Dispute Settlement Body can intervene when one country accuses another of breaking agreed WTO rules. It normally does this by initiating some sort of protectionist measure. Like the GATT the WTO provides a forum for multilateral trade negotiations; conducts reviews of member country trade policies; and cooperates with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in an attempt to achieve greater coherence in global economic policy making.
Ex. 1. Complete the paragraph, use the following terms:
| Free trade – protectionism – tariffs – customs duties – quotas – imports – exchange rates – exports |
The WTO was set up in 1995 to encourage free trade in the global market place. It is therefore designed to resist …. No new barriers to trade can be set up, and governments cannot set new … or … or increase ones that already exist as there are really taxes that prevent …. Similarly the WTO opposes the use of … since these limit the amount of … coming into a country. This may protect a country’s industry in the short term, but if its trading partners reply with similar measures, then … will suffer. The WTO governs trade in many products and raw materials, but the world of finance is largely outside of its scope, therefore it has no control over ….
Ex. 2. Circle the terms below which encourage the movement of goods across borders, explain your choice.
Favourable exchange rates, customs duties, WTO, tariffs, import quotas, protectionism, free trade agreements.
Ex. 3. Answer the questions about the information in the text.
1. When do most of the world’s industrialised nations mutually agree to end the tariff wars?
a) in 1941;
b) in 1952;
c) in 1947.
2. What objectives did the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade have?
a) encouraging international trade;
b) making tariffs the only form of protectionism;
c) reducing these as much as possible;
d) all of the above.
3. What did the most favoured nation clause of the GATT agreement specify?
a) that countries could not have favoured trading patterns;
b) countries had to grant equally favourable conditions to all trading partners;
c) both a) and b).
Ex. 4. Dwell on the following issues.
1. What are tariff wars?
2. When was the GATT superseded by the World Trade Organization?
3. What are the functions and the structure of WTO at present?
4. What world organizations does WTO cooperate with?
WRITING
A. Insert the following words in the spaces in the text below.
| although as consequently due to for example furthermore however in other words moreover nevertheless whereas yet |
B. Prepare a written report either defending free trade, or defending the right of the EU to indirectly subsidize Caribbean banana producers on the basis of the text.
The Banana Wars
The progressive reduction of tariff barriers has caused World Trade to increase by several hundred per cent since 1945, and there is no doubt that this has created both work and prosperity. It has also improved products: (1) …… the planned economies of the Soviet Union and the Communist block countries created industries that produced nearly as much as Western companies, the products were much less sophisticated, reliable or marketable, (2) …… they were excluded from competition. Today, most economists argue that nations which try to shelter declining industries behind tariff barriers are simply resisting the inevitable, and that they could use those subsidies to create new jobs in more modern industries. (3) ……, tariff barriers penalize consumers: the Japanese, (4) ……, pay ten times more for rice than they would if they could buy rice from South East Asia.
(5) …… for many years, the banana industry had a special status. The European Union allowed former British and French colonies in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific islands to export to Europe as many bananas as they wished, at slightly above world prices. Banana production costs are higher in the Caribbean than on American-owned plantations in Latin America, (6) …… the small size of family-run farms, the difficult terrain, and the climate.
In 1999, (7) ……, the US-based company Chiquita Brands made a $500,000 donation to the Democratic Party. The very next day, the US government complained to the World Trade Organization about Europe’s banana trade, and put a 100% import tariff on various European goods.
Opponents of the American case pointed out that only 7% of the 2.5 billion tonnes of bananas imported into Europe every year come from the Caribbean. The US’s banana policy only cost American companies about $200 million a year, (8) …… trade between the US and the EU is worth about £200 billion.
Half the population of the Caribbean relies on the banana industry to supply their basic needs such as food, shelter and education. Small states such as Dominica depend on banana exports to the EU for around 70 per cent of all export earnings and much of their employment. No other countries in the world have the same degree of dependence on a single product. (9) ……, if the Caribbean banana industry was taken away without farmers being given enough time to develop other ways of using the land, the counties’ economy would collapse. (10) ……, the results of entirely free trade in bananas could be disastrous.
It could also be pointed out that American, Japanese and European farmers are currently subsidized by billions of dollars every year. (11) ……, America itself erected massive tariff barriers in the 19th century. (12) ……, the Americans wanted to end subsidies to Caribbean banana producers, even though the consequences might have included many of the farmers turning to drug production and trafficking, or trying to immigrate illegally to the US.
The ‘banana wars’ ended in July 2001 when the Americans ended their special import taxes on selected European goods after the European Union agreed to import more Latin American bananas from the large US banana companies, while still also buying bananas from their former colonies.
TRANSLATION
A. Translate from English into Russian.
Economists have long understood the principle of comparative advantage. The conclusions of the great economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo on the gains from trade have held up well over time. Although economists often disagree on questions of policy, they are united in their support of free trade. Moreover, the central argument for free trade has not changed much in the past two centuries. Even though the field of economics has broadened its scope and refined its theories since the time of Smith and Ricardo, economists’ opposition to trade restrictions is still based largely on the principle of comparative advantage.
Belarus’ economy is based on exports, and the country has trade links with more than 170 countries, which helped generate international trade worth US $50 billion in 2009. The development of foreign economic activity for the republic is one of the key factors of economic growth which encourages an increase in production effectiveness and ensures people’s welfare.
Belarus is the world’s third largest producer of potash, a raw material used in many fertilizers and chemical products. Almost half of exports go to Russia, mostly minerals, chemical products, machinery and food, while more than a third goes to EU states in the form of petrochemicals, fertilizers, and textiles. After Russia, Belarus’ leading trade partners are the Netherlands, Germany and Ukraine. The main imports to Belarus are energy commodities from Russia, manly oil and gas, and raw materials.
The government has developed 47 strategies regarding the increase of exports and joining new markets in Latin America, Asia and Africa. As a result, the country entered 24 new markets in the first six months of 2010.
As regards import substitution, the Government is working hard to reduce imports of over 1,680 commodities. A strategy of foreign economic activity until 2015 has been developed to optimise the foreign trade balance. The Government goal is to reach a positive balance by 2014.
B. Translate from Russian into English.
Фритредерство – направление в экономической теории, политике и хозяйственной практике, провозглашающее свободу торговли и невмешательство государства в предпринимательскую сферу жизни общества. На практике свобода торговли обычно означает отсутствие высоких экспортных и импортных пошлин, а также немонетарных ограничений на торговлю, например, квот на импорт определенных товаров и субсидий для местных производителей определенных товаров.
Одной из ранних теорий торговли был меркантилизм, возникший в Европе в XVI веке. В XVIII веке протекционизм был подвергнут резкой критике в трудах Адама Смита, учение которого можно считать теоретической основой свободной торговли. В XIX веке взгляды Смита получили более полное развитие в трудах Давида Риккардо.
Сторонниками свободной торговли являются либеральные партии и течения; к противникам относятся многие левые партии и движения, защитники прав человека и окружающей среды, а также профсоюзы.
LISTENING
Free Trade
A. Listen to the first part of a radio interview with Ian McPherson, an expert on international trade. Complete the definition of free trade he gives.
It’s a situation in which goods come into and out of a country without any …….1 or …….2. Countries which truly believe in free trade try to ……3 their trade, that’s to say, they take away ……4 to trade. They have open ……5 and few controls of goods at ……6.
B. Listen to the second part of the radio interview. Note down five things which stop people trading freely. Explain briefly the meaning of each one. For example: 1 Tariffs. These are taxes on imported goods.
C. Listen to the third part of the radio interview and to the exercises.
1. When there is a policy of deregulation:
a) companies compete freely;
b) here are a lot of government controls;
c) companies must follow regulations.
2. According to Ian McPherson, what is the greatest benefit of free trade? Choose the best answer.
a) more choice of products;
b) better-made products;
c) more expensive products;
d) higher salaries;
e) a wider choice of jobs.
1. Complete this sentence.
Some countries do not practice free trade because they wish to:
a) fight against ……1 competition, for example, dumping;
b) protect their ……2 industries, because they are important to the economy;
c) be less ……3 on foreign imports, because their economies need developing.
2. What trend in international trade does Ian McPherson mention? Why does he think the trend is a good one?
D. Discuss these questions.
1. To what extent do you have free trade in your country?
2. Should certain industries in your country be protected? If so, which ones?
3. Is free trade always a good thing, in your opinion?
SPEAKING
A. Useful language: Complaining on the telephone.
| COMPLAINING | DEALING WITH COMPLAINTS |
| Making the complaint I’m ringing to complain about… I’m sorry, but I’m not satisfied with… Unfortunately, there’s a problem with… | Showing understanding Oh dear! Sorry to hear that. Mm, I see what you mean. I’m sorry about the problem/delay. |
| Explaining the problem The CD player doesn’t work. There seems to be a problem with… We haven’t received the… | Getting the facts Could you give me some details, please? What happened exactly? What’s the problem exactly? |
| Insisting It really isn’t good enough. I’d like to know why… | Making excuses/denying responsibility It’s not our policy to replace items. It’s not our fault that it hasn’t arrived. I’m afraid that’s not quite right. |
| Threatening If you don’t replace the product, I’ll complain to the manager. If you can’t deliver on time, we’ll have to contact other suppliers. | Promising action OK, I’ll look into it right away. I’ll check the details and get back to you. |
Ex. 1. Listen to a customer making a complaint. Answer these questions.
1. What is the customers’ complaint?
2. What solution does the customer service representative suggest?
3. What solution does the customer want?
4. How does the call end?
Ex. 2. Listen again and complete the extracts from the dialogue.
| Customer services | I’m sorry to hear that. What ……1 to be the ……2. |
| Customer services | Could you give me ……, 3 please? |
| Customer services | I’m afraid it’s ……5 to replace items. |
| Customer | Well, that’s not really ……6. |
| Customer services | All right then. Bring the machine in and we’ll see what ……7 for you. |
Ex. 3. One of you is the Production Manager for a power tools manufacturer. The other is a supplier of components. Role play the following telephone call. Use phrases from the Useful language box.
| Production Manager | Supplier |
| Ring your supplier to complain about some electric motors (order No. PV 205) which have a number of defects (don’t fit, not up to usual standard, etc.). | · Deal tactfully with the complaint. · Show understanding. · Get the facts. · Promise action. |
B. Role-play:
Divide into two groups – economists and the government.
The government use arguments to advocate trade restrictions.
The economists prove the benefits of free trade.
C. Discus the following issues:
1. Do you agree that people’s tastes today are more homogeneous? Why? Which products do you know of that are found in most parts of the world today?
2. To what extent do you have free trade in your country?
3. What does your country export and import? What are the reasons for this?
4. Which countries are your major trading partners?
5. Which ‘uneconomic’ (or internationally uncompetitive) sectors, if any, do you think should be protected in your country?
6. Would total free trade result in the creation of jobs, or in unemployment, in your country?
7. Is free trade always a good thing, in your opinion?
VOCABULARY
advantage n – преимущество
absolute ~ – абсолютное преимущество
comparative~ – сравнительное преимущество
customs duty – таможенная пошлина
embargo n – юридический запрет торговой деятельности
to remove an ~ снимать запрет
under ~ – under embargo
export n – экспорт
visible ~s – видимые статьи экспорта (экспорт товаров)
invisible ~s – невидимый экспорт (экспорт услуг)
protectionism n – протекционизм (политика государств направленная на ограждение национальной экономики от иностранной конкуренции)
quota n – квота
to exceed one’s ~ – превосходить квоту
to fill/fulfil/meet a ~ – составлять квоту
restriction n – ограничение
to impose/ place/put on ~ – вводить, налагать ограничения
retaliate v – 1) отплачивать тем же, 2) применять репрессалии (путем введения повышенных пошлин)
specialization n – специализация
tariff n – тариф/пошлина/расценка
protective ~ защитная/протекционистская пошлина
revenue ~ фискальный тариф/пошлина
to impose/ levy a ~ – вводить, налагать пошлины
to pay a ~ платить по тарифным ставкам
to eliminate a ~ – отменить пошлину
GLOSSARY
· Absolute advantage is the ability of a country to produce a good using fewer resources than another country.
· Comparative advantage is the ability of a country to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country. A country with absolute advantages in a number of different products should concentrate on the products which bring the greatest advantage.
· Embargo is a law that bars trade with another country.
· Free trade is a system which allows certain countries to buy and sell goods from each other without any financial restrictions.
· Invisible exports or invisible imports –trade in services such as banking, insurance and tourism.
· Protectionism is the government’s use of embargoes, tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions to protect domestic producers from foreign competition.
· Quota is a limit on the quantity of a good that may be imported in a given time period.
· Tariff is a tax on an import.
· Visible exports and visible imports – trade in goods such as food, raw materials, and manufactured goods.
· WTO – World Trade Organization.
GLOBALIZATION
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