Identification of names

Name through centuries and counties

It is believed that a person needs a name for identifying and distinguishing himself from others. How many Carls were on all thrones of West Europe? There were 15 ones only in Sweden! Carl the Great’s power turned this name into a Slavic common noun korol (king). And what about innumerable Lui in France, Fridrichs in Germany, etcetera? After victories of Henry I the name Henry was overspread among German and neighbor states ruling dynasties. Having studied Turkmen’s names in the XI-XVIII centuries Z.B.Mukhmedova noted:”According to our data there is a social border between ordinary people’s names and khan’s names. Latter usually bear names of predatory animals and birds, which used to be totems: it is very seldom when their names arise from such natural phenomena as rain or desert bush. Makhmud Kasgarsky noticed it in the XI century.In ancient times names derived from God Apollo’s name in Thrace and Egypt belonged to aristocrats.Names are social in the history of each country. Princes ’seignorial surnames appeared in Russia from XIV till the middle of the XVI century, landowners’ given names formed in the XIV-XVII centuries: town people’s surnames, except eminent merchant class had not been finally established even in the XIX century, the overwhelming majority of serfs did not have surnames till the middle of the XIX century.

Structure of surnames differed socially. Princes’ surnames formed from church names were rare among princes’ ones but they were very often formed from nicknames, there were no surnames come into being from nomina agentis (“according to professions”), which were very popular among merchant given names.The latter differs from serfs with high percentage of toponymic stems (a place where and how a merchant came). Analogycal social features of surnames were marked by researchers in different countries, for example in France and Hungary.Even forms of names are social. In ancient Russia frequently used in the XI-XII centuries compound personal names ending on –slav (Svyatoslav, Yaroslav, Mstislav) were called princes’names. Indeed only feudal lords bore these names. It is known that Moscow boyars struggled with tsar for the right to be signed with -vich, i.e. with full patronymic name, for example, Ivan Fedorovich (not Ivan Fedor’s son). The right of bearing –vich was strictly limited by the law through these limits changed during several centuries with the change of the main social support of the power.In Poland shlyakhta was furiously reflecting the attempts of unauthorized arrogating of shlyakhta surnames ending on –ski (though there was no written rights on families). Byk became Bykowsky, Badura – Badurski. Service elements which formed surnames from the name of the estate became the attribute of the nobility in France and Germany (French de, German von).

Strict social gradation of names was typical for all documents in the Russian state. The form of a personal name was determined by the place on a ladder of social hierarchy.For ordinary people the pejorative form of name was obligatory in the XIX century. V.G.Belinsky wrote with anger and pain “The letter to Gogol”:”Russia represents an awful performance of the country where people call themselves by their nicknames but not by their own names, for instance, Vanka, Vaska, Steshka, Palashka.Having named the heroine of the novel “ Resurrection” Katyusha, L.N.Tolstoy with remarkable sensitivity expressed social opposition of forms of personal names. “Under two influences the girl when she grew up became half-housemaid, half-pupil. So she was called by her middle name – not Katka and not Katenka, but Katyusha. “ Nowadays these distinctions have no social value, and express only an emotional estimation, but it was absolutely different in the past.

The social pyramid of names in Iran on the boundary of 30 th of the XX century is similar and its description shows, that “this scheme answers complex feudal hierarchy of the Persian society which to a great extent survived up to nowadays”.

The personal name contained the second component in Sanskrit depending on what caste the bearer of a name belonged to. Brakhmans had –s’ arman ‘favour’or –deva god’ indra-s’arman’ Indra’s favour Jagd-devaa ‘the god of victory’), kshatrity privilieged caste had-varman ‘armour’ or armour or-raja ‘ruler,prince’, in a caste of merchants –datta ‘gifted’, and –bhuti “success”, at last the lowest caste had the component –dasa’slave’.

Interesting data of the Chinese anthroponomy in German scientist V.Bauer’s work which is devoted to personal names in modern Taiwan allow to establish such correlation, which explains distinction of two-stemmed (Van-fu, Yu-lan) and one-stemmed (Ching, Mei) names as a social distinction of bearers.

Among people with high education 96 % have two-stemmed names, with secondary 88 %, with elementary education 58 %, without any education-57 %: the reason is contained in the distinctions of material security.

In a society with conventionalized classes, names are also conventionalized. Certainly, the class differentiation of names does not mean, that social attributes inherent in the name. Their certain social character developed historically. It is impossible to understand it as the firm list of names set to each estate. Connection is more difficult and thinner, just as estates did not correspond to classes.

Personal name is the password designating the bearer’s belonging to definite public circle. It explains the existence of parallel systems of personal names, even if there is one official, obligatory for all. Such parallel systems are everywhere diverse. In fact any member of a society belongs to many crossed societies: as a citizen, he has three names: a surname, a name, a patronymic, but he can be a writer or an actor by profession and have pseudonym, besides he is a family man and his wife or children call him not by surname, name and patronymic, he also has home name, former school friends call him by his school nickname, etc.

If various sides of relations of a person to a society are not simultaneous (a factory manager, at the same time he is father, someone’s comrade of school years), and vary during his life, these changes may be accompanied even by a full change of a personal name.

Ancient Turks had only age names:”Turks did not carry the same names from birth to death, as Europeans did”. Many peoples living far from each other have age names. Young men of the Negro tribe mosi in the Western Africa live separately, preparing to maturity: for this period they receive special names and only they and their instructors know these names: later, after becoming adults, they can call each other by these names, but never at the presence of others. Tadjics in the upper reachers of the Pyanja do not pronounce the name given to a child at a birth till his coming of age, and use temporary name.There are special age names which are parallel to the main, obligatory ones as a children’s name, a school name in China. In Japan a child carried “a dairy name” till he attained his maturity then he received a name of an adult member of a society. In Korea a boy was given “a children’s name” at a birth, so called amen: having reached his maturity, he changed this name on kvanmem which is an official name, then at a marriage the name chja joined, and acting on public service or beginning activity in literature and art, in addition received also khho.

The connection of name with human life

Question 1

Ways of forming names-natural and artificial

Question 1

Motivations in giving names

Research on sociological aspect of movies of choosing names is extremely interesting. V.A.Nikonov writes:” Is it good when a name is rare, “as nobody has”, bright, exclusive,or is it bad? Or may be it is better when the name is silent, the most usual and imperceptible, “as everybody has”. Polish anthroponymist T.Milevsky confirmed that personal names differ from common nouns by full freedom of the choice. However, numerous researchers prove that the choice of personal names is caused by anthroponimical norm.Influence of fashion. Modern fashion on names is a public fashion in which public, not individual taste is shown. On the other hand, the choice of a name is determined by the desire to avoid monotony. For example, in our country the name Nursultan is very popular after the name of the president of our republic.Connection of name with certain social group. So, names Rupert, Benjamin, Alexandra traditionally connect with the representative of the middle class. Socially painted names,as, for example, Abigail which was perceived as traditional name of a servant disappeared.“I really see why you should object to the name of Algernon. It is not at all a bad name, In fact, it is rather an aristocratic name. Half of the chaps who go into the Bankruptsy Court are called Algernon”. (O.Wilde “The importance of being Earnest”).

Aspiration to avoid difficult, discordant combinations (for example, Tracey Thomas, Jason Jackson, Paul Hall, Mark Dark, Mark Martin), and longing for sonorous names:

I have a passion for the name of Mary.

For once it had a magic sound to me.

(Byron. Don Juan).

The great value in the choice of a name has the phonological-and-psychological factor which is understood as the occurrence of certain emotional associations caused by various sounds and combinations of sounds.The desire to be considered original forces some parent to give their children rare, unusual names:Charisma, Damask, Bina, Queen. Parents of newborn Afro-Americans especially “sin” with it. So, according to statistics among boys to whom last years in America were given names Cornell, Darius, Deon, Everett, Ivan, Ivory, Kenyatha, Maurice, Myron, Nakia, Roderick, Tyrone and among girls with names Akilah, Briana, Danita, Dionne, Evette, Jamila, Jawanda, Keisha, Kia, Kyra, Malaika, Sabrina, Tamika, Yolanda are in majority among the Afro-Americans populations.Influence of on the choice of a name of positive or negative associations with known historical or cultural figures (compare full disappearance of the name Adolf from modern English name-book). The American artist of the XIX th century Ch.U. Peale gave to his children names outstanding painters: Rembrandt Peale, Rafaelle Peale, Rubens Peale, Titian Peale.

“People always grow up like their names. It took me thirty years to work off the effects of being called Eric. If I wanted a girl to grow up beautiful I’d call her Elizabeth and if I wanted her to be a good cook I’d choose something like Mary or Jane.”

(George Orwell”Eric Blair”).

Connection with the birthplace. So, name Jenifer was connected with Cornwall, Yorick with the weatern England.

Desire to avoid the names occurring the names in set expressions like Simple Simon, Jack-of –all trades, Every Tom, Dick and Harry etc.

Frequently the name is given in honour of the other person, often close relative. Many fathers act as Mr. Dombey in Ch.Dickens’s novel “Dombey and son”:”He will be christened Paul…of course. His father’s name Mr.Dombey, and his grandfather’s”. Compare also Fielding’s “Tom Jones”: …the little foundling to whom he had been godfather, giving his own name of Thomas..”

Here is a fragment from C.L.emba’s small poem in which the little girl chooses a name for her sister. Many existing rules of selecting names for children can be observed in this extract:

Naming the baby.

Now I wonder what would please her-

Charlotte, Julia or Lousa

Ann and Mary, they’re too common:

Joan’s too formal for a woman:

Jane’s a prettier name beside:

But we had a Jane that died.

They would say, if ‘twas Rebecca,

That she was a little Quaker,

Edith’s pretty, but that looks

Better in old English books

Ellen’s left off long ago:

Blanche is out of fashion now.

None that I gave named as yet

Are as good as Margaret.

Emily is neat and fine.

What do you think of Caroline?

How I’m puzzled and perplexed

What to choose or think of next!

I am in a little fever

Lest the name that I shall give her

Should disgrace her or defame her

I will leave Papa to her.

C.Lamb.

We would like to draw your attention to a consideration of the question more thoroughly on th example of Russian names. We know that names are a part of every culture and that they are of a great importance both to the people who receive and to the societies give names to them.

The choice of a name is determined by customs, at a different nation with different ones, but almost always connected with superstition. According t F.I.Grdeyev, at maris “each loaf of bread is given a name during baking: the name f the best baked laf will be the name of the child”. Muslims during old times found a name by opening Koran on the off-chance. B.O.Dolgikh remarks that the people of the Siberian North have two ways of choosing names:

1. According to the first impression of the newly-made mother after confinement (if an out of breath person enters the yurta, the child will be given a name Heavybreathing).

2. Or according to the resemblance of the child to one of the died ancestors.

What kind of names are necessary? If a person giving a name to a baby is looking for the most frequent and fashionable one then the loss is provided. In fact, the name is given not for a year.

The opposition of are to frequent is deceptive. In the 70 th of the XX century the girl was given the rarest name Svetlana, and her contemporary the most frequent one Anna, now there are thousands of Svetlanas, and Anna will seldom meet her namesake. The rarest name after decades can only emphasize the age. Original attempts invent unknown names are native.

“Freedom of choice ”is imaginary. Being not restricted by the state intervention the choice of name, as shown in many examples, is subordinated by powerful authority of custom and fashion and those who try to rise above them are rigidly limited by the norms of the language. So, we can assume that neither standard of a name, nor its singularity can guarantee that the name is successful. The most frequent or the rarest name can be both bad and good. To condemn a name for its uniqueness is the name as “to eat on an empty stomach” because in fact any name was once given for the first time and was unique. Choosing good, there is no necessity to strive for “as everybody has” or vice versa “as nobody has “, there is no necessity to be afraid of rarity or frequency.

To consider foreign name as good, and native, on the contrary, as bad is wrongly. Vietnamese names his son in honour of his English friend, and the latter gives his son Vietnamese name. Here we observe high example of internationalism. Absolutely different is to be fascinated by a name from a foreign film. Both borrowed and native names can be pleasant or unpleasant. There is no need to refuse from good name only because it is old, and catch the worth but new. But the opposition of old-new is not identical to that of distinction bad and good.

Novelty is not end in itself. It is necessary to search and stand for a good name notwithstanding new it or old.

It is more difficult to evaluate a name according to its etymology, i.e. to its initial meaning. The majority of our personal names are used without sense.

Almost all Russian personal names are borrowed, they are not connected with Russian common nouns. None of thousand illiterate Alyena knew that her name Elena meant “light”. Today only few people know that Konstantin from Latin means “constant”, Galina from Greek “placid”. And etymologies of such frequently used names, as Nina and Sergey are unknown even to experts.

Various derivative meanings independent of etymology of a name influence on a choice of a name. One of these meaning promoted to the frequency of a name, by means of calling after the names of public figures, art workers, or literary heroes. Other derivative meanings, on the contrary, reduced its common use, for instance, names of negative historical persons or negative literary characters, transference of names on animals. In the hierarchial society the distribution of a name in the “lowest” estates attracts refusal from it in the privileged estates. All these meanings are not inherent in name, they arise, they arise from the use of a personal name, from a public valuation of the bearer of a name.

Each bad name etymological meaning but in the developed anthropological systems it was kept only by few names, and in all others it was faded. The difficulty is on the fact that etymological meanings of names disappear not instantly and simultaneously. Somebody gives name Shamsuddin because of its etymological value “the sun f religion”, others do not know etymology.But they know that the name is connected with religion, a lot of people do not know even this fact, from them it is only the name of the grandfather.

French anthroponomyst P.Lebel wrote, that today a personal name in France is “only a simple label, irrespective to physical and moral qualities of a child or the circumstances of a birth”. He is right, a personal name does not contain such attributes, and not only at the Frenchmen, but at the majority of the nations: moreover etymological meanings were kept only by a small group of personal names. But he is absolutely wrong declaring a personal name by “only a simple label”, it is multiplane.

The correlation of these planes of meanings characterized a name. Their correlation is always concrete and historically changeable. In some cases the etymology of a name attracts or pushes away, in other case etymological meaning quality of a name can not be estimated outside of time and environment. The name taken by itself, out of history, is in general neither well, nor bad. It gets, changes, loses these qualities only in certain conditions.

The evaluation of a name is historically concrete. The name is excellent during one time in a certain environment, but for the other time or other environment can become unpleasant.

The use of names in different spheres

In XIX century already Russia the female name Tatyana became popular, owing to the heroine of “Eugene Onegin”, as well as many other names from works of art, becoming a symbol of an attractive image. Russian names spread in Bulgaria, for example, Lyudmila – under the influence of A.S.Pushkin’s masterpiece, Aksinya –from M.Sholokhov’s “The Quiet Don”, Oleg –from A.Fadeev’s “Young Guards”.

Proper names in literary works often play a specific role assisting authors to portray the reality more effectively in the view of their ideologically-aesthetic positions.

One of basic preconditions of realness of art in conformity of personal names used in it to laws of national onomastic systems. Therefore, there is no wonder, that many great writers kept a look-out on people’s names, worked thoroughly on onomastic material. Succeefully chosen name becomes additional means of the character and strengthens emotional impression of the whole work.

Each literary name receives a certain stylistic loading aimed to make the hero called by this name more vivid and evident. Classifying names of literary heroes according to their stylistic function in the work, we would like to point out following groups of names:

1. Neutral names, appropriation of which is the most typical for the protagonists of the English literature. The most characteristic type is the local names formed from nicknames, patronymic or professional names: Manson, Dombey, Copperfield, Sawyer.

2. Descriptive (characterizing) names contain direct or indirect characteristics of their bearers:Sir Dedlock, Mr.Krook, Headstone and others.

3. Parody names, among which we can single out so-called names-stereotypes. Their stylistic function is to express of mass character, stereotype of designated persons. Charles Dickens widely used these names: Boodle, Doodle, Duffy, Guffy.

4. Associative names which by their visual and sound from cause in the reader the associations specifying and deepening the features of the characters: Miss Flite, Murstone, Mrs.Pipchin, Mr. Toots.

As literature is one of the main for creating and giving names, then onomastics, in its turn, is one of the main sourses for creating and forming new phraseological units. Well-known connoisseur of English phraseology Logan P.Smith wrote about idioms:”Their internal content reflects people’s life:reasonable or silly behavior, success or failure, and foremost, relations between people, impressions and feelings of people interested in each other, approval and more often disapproval, friendliness and animosity, quarrel and reconciliation,rivalry, insidiousness, condemnation, punishment, etc.

Phraseology is closely connected with history, culture, traditions and literature of people speaking on the given language. This connection is most precisely traced in those phraseological units in which structure we can observe a proper name. A great deal of set expression of this type are connected with the facts of past times, the motivation of proper names (and the whole phraseological unit) disappeared long ago and can be reconstructed only by etymological analysis. From the synchronic view the majority of such phraseological units lost their motivation. When Englishmen use the expression Hobson’s choice which means absence of any choice”, they usually do not know that Hobson was the surname of really existed owner of a stable who did not give his clients the right to choose a horse. Being a component of a phraseological unit, in its structure the proper name obeys the same laws as common nouns. A proper name in the structure of a phraseological unit frequently becomes “the potential word”, lexically “devastated”. The occurrence of “common gender “meaning is observed quite often, and it proves the abstract character of the meanings of proper name in the units of this type.

Vocabulary of language is exposed to changes. Therefore the phraseological fund also changes, it is enriched and updated, and of course new phraseological units with proper names enter in it. New names appear in society life, new associative connections arise which give birth to new phraseological units. We are indisputably interested in the analysis of proper name, a component of phraseological unit which allows limiting a circle of the names most often occurring in phraseology.

Names of Anglo-Saxon and Norman period

After the gain of England by Normans in English language Old French diminutive suffixes –el, -in, -on, -ot.get. Diminutive and pet names are created Hamel, Hamelin, Hamelet (Ham –Hamon(d) +el, -el-in, -el-ot)., Bartelot, Bartelet (Bart –Bartholomew +el-et) etc. During the same time for formation of secondary derivatives English suffixes –cock, -kin are used also Adcock, Malkin.These suffixes were productive in XI-XIV centuries, and now they can be met in the surnames which have arisen during the Middle English period: Atkin (Ad –Adam +kin), Babcock –Barbara +cock), Tomkin (Tom –Thomas +kin)etc.

Since XV century hypocoristic man’s and female’s names are formed by means of productive suffixes –ie, for example: Bettie, Betty (Bet –Elizabeth), Jonny (John), Peggy (Peg –Margaret) etc. Having arisen in Scotland, these suffixes from sphere of proper names have gradually got as well into sphere of common nouns, for example: birdie, bookie, doggie, granny, lassie, nightie, etc.

It is necessary to note, that the tendency to use derivatives also in business conditions, at meetings, sessions, press conferences, in public performances, in a press, etc, now is observed. Derivatives gradually become the legal, official names used together accompanying words of politeness:honourable, reverend, doctor (scientist degree), mister –Mr. etc. For instance, Dr. (doctor) Billy, Hon. (honourable), Jimmie, Rev. (reverend).

1. Aart Anglo-Saxon Male Like an eagle.

2. Abeodan Anglo-Saxon Male Announce.

3. Ablendan Anglo-Saxon Male Blind.

4. Abrecan Anglo-Saxon Male Storm.

5. Acca Anglo-Saxon Female From Acca.

Christian influence on names and Puritan name creation

Adam. This is the Hebrew word for “man”. It could be ultimately derived from Hebrew (adam meaning”to be red”, referring to the ruby colour of human skin, or from Assyrian adamu meaning “to make”. According to Genesis in the Old Testament Adam was created from the earth by God (there is a word play on Hebrew (adamah) “earth”.) He and Eve were supposedly the first humans, living happily in the Garden of Eden until Adam ate a forbidden fruit given to him by Eve. As an English Christian name, Adam has been common since the Middle Ages, and it received a boost after the Protestant Reformation.A famous bearer was Scottish economist Adam Smith (1723-1790).

Anna (Ann). Latinate form of Hannah. The name appears briefly in the New Testament belonging to a prophetess who recognized Jesus as the Messiah. It was a popular name in the Byzantine Empire from an early date, and in the Middle Ages it became common among Western Christians due to veneration of Saint Anna (usually known as Saint Anne in England.), the name traditionally assigned to the mother of the Virgin Mary. In the English –speaking world, this form came into general use in the 18th century, joining Ann and Anne. The name was borne by several Russian royals, including an 18th century empress of Russia,It was also the name of the main character in Leo Tolstoy’s novel “Anna Karenina” (1877), a woman forced to choose between her son and her lover.

In the seventeenth century, for some of the most puritanical of the Puritans, even biblical and saints’ names were not pure enough to bestow on their children, and so they turned instead to words that embodied the Christian virtues. These ranged from extreme phrases like Sorry-for-sin and Search-the-Scriptures (which, understandably, never came into general use) to simpler virtue names like Silence and Salvation.

The virtue names that have survived in this country were for the most part the unfussy, one-syllable girls’ names with positive meanings, such as Joy, Hope, Grace and Faith. But then, in the late 1990s, a door was opened to more elaborate examples by the popularity of the TV show Felicity, and its appealing heroine. Felicity (also the name of an American Girl Colonial doll) reached a high point on the girls’ list in 1999, a year after the show debuted, leading parents to consider others long forgotten relics.

Here are the Nameberry picks of the twelve best virtue names:

· Amity—like all the virtue names ending in ity, Amity has an attractive daintiness combined with an admirable meaning—in this case, friendship. It could be a modernized (or antiquated, depending how you look at it) namesake for an Aunt Amy.

· Clarity—we like it much better than Charity or—oh no—Chastity. And Clare makes a nice short form.

· Clemency—Clemency, the name of a character in one of Charles Dicken’s lesser known Christmas novellas, The Battle of Life, can be seen as an offbeat alternative to Clementine.

· Constance was originally used in a religious context which has been lost over the years. There are many Constances found in history and literature: there was Constance of Brittany, mother of young Prince Arthur who appears in Shakespeare’s King John, a daughter of William the Conqueror, and characters in Goldsmith’s She Stoops to Conquer and Dumas’s The Three Musketeers. Constance hasn’t been much heard in the 21st century—probably because of the dated nickname Connie. The Puritans also used Constant.

Identification of names

One of the branches that consider name as a concept is onomastics. Onomastics is a set of names surrounding us in any sphere of life and activity. Sometimes it is replaced with the term onymy.

Onymy as any lexicon vividly reacts to all the phenomena happening in the environment surrounding the person, as a result names appear involuntary registarts of natural phenomena and the events which take place in the public life.

We shall consider how the separate factors connetcted with the life and activity of the person are reflected in onomasticon.

Name and geographical environment.Among proper names of any language, especially among anthroponyms, there will be many words including lexemes, denoting features of a landscape, the atmospheric phenomena, et cetera. For instance from Russian nicknames as Grom (thunder), Moroz (frost), Ozero (lake) appear surnames as Gromov, Morozov. Ozerov and the noted Indian-American names sachem are Fine lake, the Glade in a wood, a name of the North American leader is Frost, a patrimonial name of the tribe omakha is Thunder.

Name and biological factors. Lexemes which designate phenomena, describing biological human nature, took and take a significant place in the onomasticon. Especially it affected the structure of anthroponyms which in informal situations reflect various biological characteristics of the person (Lame, Bandy-legged, Fingerless, et cetera). Such kind of names was much more in the antiquity. Names reflecting biological characteristics of a person existed and exist at all nations. However, their percentage ratio with the names of other types during the different periods of life of human society was different. But the fact of appealing to the biological characteristics of the person at the creation of names is one of the onomastic universals.

Name and public life. Names of each epoch have sociological and ideological filling adequate to the cultural specificity of the epoch. Lexemes in the structure of names can serve as a vivid illustration of the connection between name and the life of human society.

So, for example, in 1789 metropolitan Platon founded five grants at Academy of Spiritual Studies in Moscow. Students, whose studies were paid by Platon, accepted Platon’s surname which, then, passed to their descendants. Many graduates of the Moscow Academy of Spiritual Studies in consequence had double surnames: Gilyarev-Platonov, Gorsky-Platonov, Kudryavtsev-Platonov, Pobedensky-Platonov. The grant-holder had to take the surname Mikhailov. The patrons of art who wished to keep the memory about themselves and their name quite often established on their own money educational institutions which were to be called after their names.

History knows the ruined names which are gone out of use at the significant social groups as a result of moral conviction of their bearer’s acts. So, in England after Cromwell’s coming to power his name Oliver was not popular within hundred years; after German capture of Austria by Hilter his name Adolf was given to nobody in Vein during more than 20 years.

Names as a part of lexicon vividly reacting to public changes are extremely subject to influence of fashion. As the name is the subject of spiritual culture, the fashion on names is close to the fashions on literary works or pictures created in certain style, and radically differs from the fashion on dresses or canes which are the subjects of material use. Fashions on names are explained by the complex interaction between linguistic and non-linguistic factors influencing on the choice of names. Incidentally only linguistic and non-linguistic “push” is usually insufficient ly for the origin or discontinuance of the fashion. All set of factors is important.

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