Comparative Study

1. Assess the degree of bias (Republican,
Democrat, neutral) in the Irving Kristol
interview, the Reagan-Bush pamphlet, the
address by Governor Cuomo, and the article
from the Washington Post— "Americans Vote
for Divided Government."

2. Judging from these four texts where do you
see the basic differences in the political
agendas of the two main parties?

3. Between the Irving Kristol interview and the
Washington Post article there is a time span of
about eight years. In light of the 1984 and
1988 elections, to what extent did the new
conservatism envisaged by Kristol in 1981 as
part of a cyclical pattern of political
philosophies become the dominant factor in
American politics?

4. How do the political philosophies of the two
major parties compare with those of the main
parties in your country?

ю America's Global Role

PART A Background Information

SUPERPOWER INFLUENCE

MILITARY STRENGTH

As a global superpower, the United States exerts wide-reaching political, military, and economic influence. It has strong political and military ties to democratic governments in Western Europe and in other areas of the world. As the leading power of the western hemisphere, the United States plays an active role in Latin America.

America's political and military alliances are backed by its formidable military and nuclear forces.

Summary of	Major	Military Forces: 1980 то 1985 [As of Sept. 30]
DESCRIPTION				DESCRIPTION
Army:Divisions..................................................... Maneuver battalions..................................................... Air defense battalions/batteries..................................... Special forces groups..................................................................... Aircraft, number..................................................................... Navy:Ship operating force............................................................ Tactical air squadrons................................................... Antisubmarine air squadrons '.................................................................... Marine divisions......................................................	16 168 154 3 8,731 538 61 22 3	16 155 135 48,926 639 63 24 3	17 159 127 4 9,025 669 63 24 3	Navy:-Con. Marine aircraft combat squadrons: Fixed-wing squadrons................................................. Rotary-wing squadrons................................................. Aircraft, number................................................................... Air Force:ICBM launchers................................................................... Selected aircraft squadrons................................................. Strategic.................................................... Airdefense................................................. Tactical (excluding air-lift).............................................................. Aircraft, number 2.................................................................	30 24 4,861 1,054 125 26 6 93 10,116	31 28 5,002 1,031 124 21 5 98 10,297	35 33 5,039 1,023 124 21 5 98 10,427

NATO

¹ Does not include patrol squadrons. ²Excludes foreign government-owned aircraft.

Over 2 million men and women are members of the armed forces. About one fourth of the United States military personnel serve overseas. The United States operates military bases in strategic areas throughout the world, including Africa, the Middle East, Central America, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Most of its overseas forces, however, are concentrated in Western Europe under provisions of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This military alliance, which includes the United States, Canada, Greece, Turkey, and most Western European nations, guarantees the defense of member nations against Soviet attack. Since 1949, when the alliance was created, the United States has acted as Western Europe's military leader.

While American military involvement has given European nations security against Soviet attack, it has also made them dependent, in many respects, on American foreign policy. Often excluded from superpower arms talks, Western

AMERICA'S GLOBAL ROLE 171

ECONOMIC STRENGTH

leaders must rely on the United States to negotiate settlements that serve Europe's security interests. A U.S. decision to withdraw troops or missiles from Europe puts pressure on European leaders to strengthen their nations' defense.

America's political and military strength is generated, in turn, by a powerful economy. The U.S. economy surpasses all other economies in overall production. Although it is neither the world's largest nor most populous nation, its economic output, measured by gross national product (GNP), is twice the Soviet Union's, three times Japan's, and six times West Germany's.

A World Power... although it is neither first in size nor in population:

World Position

All figures 1983/1984

Land area (million km^2)

1. 2. 3. 4. S.

22,4

9,98

9,74

9,36

8,51

1,66 П

U.S.S.R.

CANADA

ER.ofCHINR U.S.A.

BRAZIL

E.E.C.

Population (million)

1Ю50

[275

~[273

~|237

--------

ER. of CHINA

INDIA

U.S.S.R.

E.E.C.

U.S.A.

Gross national product U.S. $ (billion)

x------ \3630

___ 2250

ca.1650 О

О

о

--------

U.S.A.

E.E.C.

U.S.S.R.

JAPAN

ER. of GERMANY

Gross industrial production U.S.$ (billion)

/'-—ч Н50

o"

^.ca.800

/^-v 500

--------

U.S.A. E.E.C. U.S.S.R. JAPAN FR. of GERMANY

FOREIGN TRADE

The United States is not only the world's leading producer, but also the world's greatest importer and exporter of goods. Other nations rely heavily on trade with the United States.

South Asia Southeast Asia East Asia (except Japan)

U.S. FOREIGN TRAPE BY REGIONS 1982

Exports in billions of US $ Imports in billions oT US $

172 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

America's economic influence is also extended through foreign investment. American businesses and industries operate all over the world. American investment boosts the economies of these nations by providing employment, technology and new products.

American Firms in Foreign Countries

U.SJnvestment Abroad

according to economic sectors

other 34%

industry 141%

petroleum 25%

according to regions and countries

Western Europe 45%

other 11% Japan 3%

Asia 7% (except Japan)

Latin America 14% Canada 20%

21 £

»1

in billions U.S. $

>

| u.s

Investment Abroad

/

150 100

)1 f

s

/

I

f

/

\--------- \

\---------- ^:

Y

Foreign Investments in the U.S.A.

i;

THE ROLE OF THE DOLLAR

TECHNOLOGY

Also contributing to America's economic power is the status of the dollar as the world's chief international currency. The dollar is used for most inter­national trading, and for practically all lending and borrowing transactions. The pre-eminence of American currency is observed in Latin American and Eastern European countries, where the dollar has become accepted as a second currency.

As a leading producer and exporter of technology, the United States con­tributes to worldwide economic growth. It exports more computer systems and electric machinery and invests more money in technological research than any other country.

Still Leading in High Technology Percentage of world exports of high technology

other 11

GLOBAL ECONOMIC INFLUENCE

U.S.A. 37

Great Britain 10

West Germany 17

Japan 25

Given the huge volume of production, trading, and investment, the American economy is bound to have a global economic influence. Foreign investors, traders, and lenders closely watch conditions in the American economy such as the balance of trade, the value of the dollar, interest rate levels, and American investment policies.

AMERICA'S GLOBAL ROLE 173

THE BALANCE OF TRADE

PROTECTIONISM

MARKET INSTABILITY

INTEREST RATES INFLUENCE ON THE THIRD WORLD

ECONOMICS AND POLITICS

U.S. FOREIGN POLICY

FROM

ISOLATIONISM TO INTERVENTIONISM

In the past years, the United States has experienced massive trade deficits, which meant it was importing more goods than it was exporting. This trade imbalance has promoted growth in the rest of the world: other countries have been able to sell more of their products to the United States, and these sales have provided them with export surpluses. While the U.S. trade deficit has benefited foreign economies, it has created severe economic distress for the American economy. The markets of American manufacturers have been dimin­ished both at home and abroad owing to increased foreign competition.

Many American business and labor groups have called for the United States to adopt a protectionist trade policy. Import restrictions would boost the sale of American goods and reduce the trade imbalance. On the other hand, foreign economies, dependent on export sales to the United States, would suffer.

The high volatility of the American dollar in recent years has created in­stabilities on worldwide trade markets. Fluctuations in foreign currency rates and the prices of stocks and precious metals are due in part to the dollar's instability.

Because dollars are used for borrowing and lending, U.S. interest rates and dollar values are of particular concern to foreign debtor nations. Third World countries were severely affected by high interest rates charged in the early 1980s. Many developing countries could not afford to pay the interest on their loans.

Third World countries rely heavily on American investment to stimulate employment and industrial growth. These countries' economic gains, however, are accompanied by the loss of economic power and independence. In devel­oping countries, where economic conditions are backward, American firms play a dominant role. Firms can use their economic power to influence foreign governments into adopting policies that serve American political and economic interests rather than local interests.

In industrial countries as well, the United States has often used its economic power to achieve its political aims. Economic aid and economic sanctions are frequently used to implement foreign policy goals.

Understanding the power and influence of the American economy is crucial to understanding America's role in global affairs. America's economic power is what ultimately underlies its political power and gives substance to foreign policy.

American foreign policy, or the set of goals that determines America's relations with other governments and its stance on international issues, has been guided by several principles. First, American foreign policy serves a moral aim in promoting and protecting democratic systems and democratic values such as individual freedom and human rights. This ideal is often referred to as "making the world safe for democracy." Second, American foreign policy is committed to the practical principle of protecting America's political and economic interests. Third, American foreign policy is directed toward maintaining the balance of international power. These principles have guided U.S. policies since the early part of the century when the nation began playing an increasingly important role in international affairs.

In the years between the First World War and the Second World War American foreign policy developed from isolationism to interventionism. Before its involvement in the First World War, the United States had remained aloof from the political conflicts of European powers. It had concentrated

174 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

WORLD WAR II

COMPETING SPHERES OF INFLUENCE

THE COLD WAR

CONTAINING THE SPREAD OF COMMUNISM

instead on expanding territories and influence in the western hemisphere. When the First World War broke out, most Americans clung to this old idea of staying out of Europe's quarrels. Yet by this time, the United States had become the leading industrialized nation and could scarcely remain unaffected by world events. In 1917, the United States entered the war as an ally of France and Great Britain, breaking the long tradition of neutrality and diplomatic independence.

After the war ended, the United States tried to return to its policy of isolationism. When war broke out again in Europe in 1939, the United States declared its neutrality. As the conflicts in Europe escalated and entry in war seemed inevitable, Americans were divided on the issue of isolationism versus interventionism. The Japanese invasion of Pearl Harbor settled the issue. America entered the war as an Allied power, committing its entire military and economic resources to defeating Germany and Japan.

The Second World War brought the American economy to unprecedented levels of industrial production. Large-scale factories were constructed to produce war materials, and billions of dollars went into technological research for advanced weaponry. The United States spent $2 billion on the development and testing of the atomic bomb.

After the Second World War, the global balance of power became per­manently altered and the role of the United States in world affairs changed dramatically.

With the defeat of Germany and Japan, a "power vacuum" was left in Europe and another in Asia. Only two great powers remained in the world — the United States and the Soviet Union. Competing spheres of influence, communist and democratic, soon emerged.

The Soviet Union set up communist regimes in Eastern Europe, and the Chinese later began to spread communist influence throughout Asia. Mean­while, the United States helped restore democracy in Western Europe and Japan, thereby establishing its own spheres of influence.

To consolidate power and discourage encroachment, both the United States and the Soviet Union established military alliances. The United States and the western democracies, and later Greece and Turkey, coordinated defense in the NATO alliance. The Soviet Union and its eastern satellite nations formed the Warsaw Pact.

The years following the Second World War, known as the "cold war" period, were characterized by mounting tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. During this period, each side tried to establish political strongholds in Europe and Asia. In some instances, armed conflict resulted. At the same time, both powers built up vast military defense arsenals which relied heavily on nuclear weapons.

During the cold war, American foreign policy, known as containment, focused on protecting democracy and containing the spread of communism. Immediately after the Second World War, the United States implemented this policy by supplying both military and economic aid to war-devastated countries that were susceptible to communist takeover.

Pearl Harbor: in a surprise attack on December 7, 1941, Japanese warplanes destroyed American airfields and aircraft and dropped bombs on the ships of the U.S. Navy in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii causing the greatest disaster in American military history.

AMERICA'S GLOBAL ROLE 175

ECONOMIC AID

MILITARY FORCE

THE NUCLEAR THREAT

THE VIETNAM WAR

In 1947 the United States responded to communist pressures in Greece and Turkey by sending millions of dollars in military aid.

To ensure the stability of western European democracies, the United States began a massive four-year program of economic reconstruction known as the Marshall Plan. Altogether the United States spent over $12 billion in economic aid. The plan brought remarkable recovery. By the end of 1950, Europe's industrial production was up 64 percent, economic activity was well above prewar levels, and communist strength among voters was dwindling.

The United States introduced a similar economic recovery plan in Japan. Both economic programs achieved the American foreign policy objectives of restoring democracy and containing the spread of communism.

During the cold war decades of the 1950s and 60s, the United States frequently used military force to support pro-western governments which were being threatened by communist invasion. One such use of force was in Korea. When the communist-backed North Korean army invaded South Korea in 1950, the United States sent troops to defend South Korea. Similar perceptions of a communist threat led to U.S. intervention in Guatemala in 1954, in Lebanon in 1958, in Cuba in 1961, in the Dominican Republic in 1965, and in Grenada in 1983.

During this period, cold war tensions were increased because of the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Each country used new developments in nuclear and space technology to produce weapons of devas­tating destructive capabilities. In 1962, fears of nuclear confrontation reached a climax. The United States discovered that the Soviets were beginning to install nuclear missiles in Cuba, where they would be able to reach American cities within minutes. President Kennedy imposed a blockade on Cuba and prepared for nuclear retaliation if the Soviets refused to dismantle the site. Soviet Premier Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for an American promise not to invade Cuba.

The Cuban missile crisis proved that the United States was prepared to use nuclear force, if necessary, to respond to a direct Soviet threat to American security.

Throughout the 1950s and 60s, the United States tried to curb Soviet in­fluence by channeling economic aid to unstable governments in impoverished regions of the world such as Africa, Latin America, and Asia. In Vietnam, however, a U.S. policy which began as an economic and military aid program gradually escalated into full-scale war.

Under Presidents Truman and Eisenhower, the United States sent aid to establish and maintain a pro-western democratic influence in Vietnam. Aid was increased to contain the spreading communist influence in the region.

Gradually, America became even more involved. Between 1961 and 1963 President Kennedy sent thousands of military advisers.

President Johnson favored direct intervention. By 1968, 500,000 American troops were fighting, and bombs were being dropped on North Vietnamese

Marshall Plan: Secretary of State George С Marshall (1880-1959) proposed a plan in 1947 to help Europe overcome the economic, social and political deterioration after the Second World War through substantial financial aid. The Marshall Plan was signed into law by President Truman in 1948.

Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich (1894-1971): Soviet statesman, first secretary of the Communist Party (1953-64); premier of the Soviet Union (1958-64).

176 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

DETENTE

ARMS CONTROL TALKS

RENEWED HOSTILITY

CENTRAL AMERICA

targets. President Johnson's policy was continued by President Nixon, who increased bombing raids and sent American soldiers into Cambodia.

Faced with a slim prospect of immediate victory and increasing public opposition to American involvement in the war, President Nixon ended up withdrawing American troops in 1973. In 1975, South Vietnam's resistance broke. In the case of Vietnam, America's use of force to achieve foreign policy goals was neither popular nor successful.

By the early 1970s cold war tensions had eased and the United States began to pursue a policy of detente ("relaxation of tensions") with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. President Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger met frequently with Soviet and Chinese leaders to make agreements that would minimize conflict and encourage trade. Between 1972 and 1974 U.S. and Soviet leaders signed eleven separate agreements to enhance cooperation in space exploration, agriculture, environmental protection, and other fields.

During the period of detente, the Soviet Union and the United States began a series of negotiations to limit strategic weapons. Two major agreements were reached. The first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), signed in 1972, limited each country's defensive weapons and put a five-year restriction on the making of several types of offensive weapons. The 1979 SALT II treaty, signed by President Carter and Premier Brezhnev, placed restrictions on long-range bombers and missiles. However, the U.S. Senate failed to ratify the treaty because many senators believed the treaty made too many concessions to the Soviets.

Relations between the two nations became hostile again in 1979 when Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan. President Carter responded with harsh economic measures. He imposed a grain embargo and called for the American boycott of the Moscow Olympics. He also strengthened the military by re-imposing draft registration and increasing defense spending.

President Reagan also used economic measures to express disapproval of Soviet policies. When martial law was declared in Poland in 1981, President Reagan imposed economic sanctions not only against Poland, but also against the Soviet Union.

Although President Reagan sometimes used economic measures to achieve foreign policy goals, he believed that the most effective way of dealing with the Soviet Union and other communist governments was through the projection of military force.

In Central America, President Reagan advocated military involvement to stop the spread of communism. In the early 1980s, President Reagan asked Congress to provide aid to the Salvadoran government to stop communist forces from taking over. In 1983, the United States invaded Grenada to prevent a left-wing government from coming to power. President Reagan considered the left-wing Sandinista government of Nicaragua a threat to U.S. national security. Through Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) activities and military

Kissinger, Henry: born 1923, professor in government at Harvard University, National Security Adviser to the President from 1969 to 1975, Secretary of State from 1973 to 1977, Nobel Peace Prize 1973.

Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich (1906—82): Soviet statesman, general secretary of the Communist Party (1966-82).

Sandinistas: a leftist political force, named after Cesar Augusto Sandino, one of the leaders of the rebellion against the United States Marines from 1927 to 1933.

AMERICA'S GLOBAL ROLE 177

INCREASED DEFENSE SPENDING

aid, the United States supported anti-Sandinista rebels in their fight to over­throw the communist government in Nicaragua. Many Congressional leaders, however, opposed President Reagan's policies in Central America, fearing that increased involvement might lead to war.

In order to project a stronger military presence, President Reagan increased defense spending to an unprecedented level. Between 1981 and 1986, the defense budget rose 45 percent.

DEFENSE SPENDING

In billions of 1982 dollars, fiscal years

DEFENSE BUILDUP

Fiscal years

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