The Alanian (Ossetian) heroic Narts epos or Nartiad, is one of the great poetic works known in the world. It exists in the form of kadags (epic songs, sagas) and prosaic legends. The latter are also traditionally called kadags. Some Caucasian peoples have their own versions of the Narts epic songs. The world-famous philologist G. Dumezil (1898-1960) proved that the so-called tripartite social organization was characteristic of the Indo-European society, i.e. the society was divided into the caste of the wise or priests, the caste of warriors and the caste of cattle-breeders. This ancient feature is well traced in the Alan Narts epos. (The fact was noticed by M. Tuganov in 1925). «None of the neighbouring peoples, that borrowed the Narts epos from the Ossets, preserved the tripartite organization of the heroes», G. Dumezil wrote.
These are the ancient legends of Narts' heroic deeds. The story tellers bequeathed them to the world, giving all their souls to the boisterous fandyr. In the faraway old days the Narts reached the heavens for the first time. Not once did they cross the lands where uaigs - giants dwelled. Not finding rest in their wanderings, they went down to the bottom of the sea, to donbetyrs, terk-turks, and gumirs, as well. They always ended battles with feasts.
In the underworld lived the dalimons, everyone with their own customs and laws. But then the fire flashed like dawn in the darkness, to spread until the ends of the earth. And people, enlightened by the fire, were not able to forget it. The Nart heroes, when they found out the power of fire, got tired of counting glorious victories.
So were the Narts established on earth with fire in their eyes, with glory on their foreheads. On feasts, in battles and in hunting their bravery drove them forth and honour was respected. Defying evil, violence and oppression, the Narts were looking for freedom.
Even to heavens they issued a brave challenge, and attacked the heavenly domains from below. But in these battles, terrible and unequal, many famous Narts perished. Like wax in the Sun, the armies melted, as women were crying near the foamy river. But those who were still alive, again gathered strength like before. The people's spirit bore the living word and heroism strengthened in cruel struggle. In the fields, gorges, on mountaintops, the Narts fought stubbornly for a long time.
The Narts epos is an encyclopedia of Alans' former life. The kadags are true relics of ancient and medieval time; they are full of charm and serve new generations of people.
Commentaries
Narts - nation of heroes who lived in ancient times
Donbetyr - Ruler of don-betyrs
don-betyrs - inhabitants of lakes and rivers (don - water), generally benevolent. According to the legend the Narts were descended from Dzerassa, the daughter of don-betyrs' ruler Donbetyr.
kadag - epic song, saga
uaigs - man-eating giants
terk-turks - mythical nation, enemies of Narts
gumirs - race of giants that supposedly inhabited the earth before Narts
Fandyr - bow musical instrument.
III. Read and translate the text.
IV. Express the same notion in one word using the words from the text.
1. Free from ignorance, prejudice, superstition.
2. Noisy and cheerful.
3. refuse to obey or show respect to.
4. To arrange (by making a will) to give smth to smb at death.
5. Narrow opening, usually with a stream, between hills or mountains.
V. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words from the text.
1. Challenging evil, violence and oppression, the Narts were seeking freedom.
2. The narrators handed the ancient legends of the Narts down to the world.
3. The Nart heroes, when found out the power of fire, had had enough of scoring glorious victories.
IV. What is your favourite legend from the Narts epos?
Dwell on it in class.
V. Translate the following text into English.
Нарты Сослан
Нартыадæммæ Сосланæй æхсарджындæр æмæ тыхджындæрнæ уыдис. Йе ‘хсардзинады кой айхъуыстис дард рæттæм. Стыр куывд скодтой Сосланы кадæн нарты адæм. Сæ куывдмæ хуынд уыдысты уæларвон зæдтæ æмæ дауджытæ[ дæр. Фæндагсар сызгъæрин базырджын Уастырджи, уæларвон Куырдалæгон[, фосы Фæлвæра, Тутыр, Æфсати, Уацилла, рухс Реком æмæ сыгъдæг Мыкалгабыртæ, уæларвон Сафа æмæ Галæгон, стæй дæтты бардуаг - Донбеттыр. Куывды адæм бирæ сидтытæ фæкодтой, цæмæй сын Сосланы цæрæнбон бирæ уа, цæмæй ноджы æхсар-джындæр, ноджы тыхджындæр, ноджы хъаруджындæр уа, цæмæй нæртон лæджы ном хуыздæрæй-хуыздæр хæссын фæраза!Зæдтæ æмæ дауджытæ дæр ын бирæ арфæтæ фæкодтой, стæй йын алчидæр исты балæвар кодта. Уастырджи Сосланæн балæвар кодта йæ номдзыд æфсургъ, Куырдалæгон та йын – йæ фæринк кард, Фæлвæра та йæ бирæ фосæй бахай кодта нартæн, æфсати та – хъæддаг сырдтæй. Хоры Уацилла, рухс Реком æмæ сыгъдæг Мыкалгабыртæ балæвар кодтой нартæн хоры гагатæ.
VI. What else can you tell about one of the most favourite Narts heroes?
VII. Make your own short story about Nart Soslan.
UNIT V
Ossetian literature
Ossetian literature is rich in oral epics, the most important being those concerned with the ancient heroes called the Narts.
Written Ossetian literature began with Т. Mamsurati (Mamsurov), who wrote the first Ossetian poems, and with russianized Ossetian publicist of the same era, such as A. Gassiev, I. Kanukov and A.Ardasenov. Generally writing in Russian, those thinkers were the first to devote themselves to the questions which arose from the impact of the modern age on the ossetians. The first important writer was Hetagkati Kosta (khetagurov), who using the script devised by Sjogren and taking the Tagaur dialect as his medium, virtually created the Ossetian literary language. We should also mention A. Kubalti (Kubalov) and B.Gurdzhibeti who together with Kosta created the first corpus of ossetian written literature. E.Britaev, S.Gadiev (Gаdiyati), A.Kotsoev and Ts. Gadiev were the first ossetian dramatists. The first Ossetian newspapers were Iron gazet and Nog Tsard (New Life); the first journals were Zond (reason, mind), Afsir (ear of grain).
After the revolution, Ossetian literature followed the main lines of development experienced by the Soviet Literature as a whole, a period of experimentation in the 1920s, followed by the restrictions of «socialist realism» of the 1930s and onwards, with novels and plays glorifying the five year plans and later celebrating the events of the Great Patriotic War. D. Mamsurati, Farnion and Botsiev emerged as the important novelists of the 1920s and 30s; Kamberdiev, Pliev and Niger became famous as writers of long narrative poems. The post-war period saw the appearance of many novels and a great deal of Ossetian scholarship, especially in the field of folklore and ethnography. The chief novelists to appear after the war were A. Agusarov and M. Tsagaraev. Among playwrights we can name A. Tokaev, V. Gagloev and G. Khugaev. Among the younger poets G. Bestauty and A. Kodzati are the best known. The leading literary critics have been Kh. Ardasenov and G. Kaloev.
I.Skim the following text and give a short summary of it.
II. Think about answers to the following questions and discuss them in class:
1. What dialects of the Ossetian language do you know? Name the authors and their literary works in each of the dialects.
2. What are the specific features of the Narts epics? Compare it with the world famous epics “Kalevala”, “Manas”, Scandinavian sagas, “King Arthur and the Round Table”, etc.
3. What do the Russian and Ossetian literatures have in common and what are their specific features?
4. What Ossetians who contributed to the world culture do you know? Give as many names as you can.
III.What is your favourite Ossetian writer or writers? Write an essay on the topic.
VI. Translate the following text into English.
Хетæгкаты Къоста
Ирыстоны номдзыддæр поэт Хетæгкаты Леуаны фырт Къоста райгуырди мин аст сæдæ фæндзай фарæстæм азы фынддæсæм октябры Нары хъæуы. Коста раздæр ахуыр кодта Нары хъæуы скъолайы, стæй та прогимназы. Мин аст сæдæ æвдай фыццæгæм азы Къоста бацыдис Стъавраполы гимназмæ. Гимназы уый бирæ кастис, фыста æмдзæвгæтæ æмæ кодта нывтæ. Уый фæстæ Къоста сыздæхтис Ирыстонмæ. Am фыста йæ æмбисонды æмдзæвгæтæ, сидтис зæронд дуджы ныхмæ тохмæ. Йæ тохы тыххæй Костайы дыууæ хатты арвыстой Ирыстонæй. Уыцы азты фæрынчын ис æмæ мин фараст сæдæ æхсæзæм азы амардис.
I. Make your own short story about your favourite Ossetian writer.
UNIT VI
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia and to the Russian-language literature of several independent nations once a part of what was historically Rus', Russia or the Soviet Union. Roots of Russian literature can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old Russian were composed. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, and from the early 1830s, Russian literature underwent an astounding Golden Age in poetry, prose, and drama. Russian authors significantly contributed almost to all known genres of the literature.
Russian literature is known as an example of good style. Since the first printing-house of Ivan Fyodorov began to work, the Russian people have never stopped to read. Our writers of the XIX century – Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, and Fyodor Dostoevsky – are studied at all Russian schools. The modern writers are appreciated not only in Russia, but in many countries. Russia has Nobel Prize literature laureates. Ivan Bunin was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933, Boris Pasternak in 1958, Michail Sholokhov in 1965, and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in 1970. Modern Russian literature is characterized by great diversity of artistic values and methods. Nowadays, when our civilization is at cross-roads, literature shows us where we can come.
Commentaries
Age of Enlightenment - a cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in the mid-eighteenth century Russia.
Nobel Prize - a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian committees in recognition of cultural and/or scientific advances.(Wikipedia)
I. Skim the following text and give a short summary of it.
II. Read and translate the text into Russian and Ossetian.
III. Choose the correct variant to the definition.
| long poem or story describing heroic deeds | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| the ordinary form of spoken or written language, without metrical structure, as distinguished from poetry or verse | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| a record or register of events in chronological order | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| long fictional narrative | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| the art dealing with the writing and production of plays | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| literary work in metrical form; verse | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
| class or category of artistic work | epic novel chronicle drama genre poetry prose |
IV. Translate the quotation into English.
Литературæ æмæ цард æдзухдæр вæййынц æмбаст. Литературæ æмæ истори æххæст æмæ æмбарын кæнынц кæрæдзи. Уымæ гæсгæ литературæ æмæ йæ фæзындтæм мах кæсæм историон цæстæнгасæй, æвзарæм сæ, цы рæстæг сæ сфæлдыста, уый æууæлтæ хынцæм, афтæмæй.
(Джыккаты Шамил)
V. Write out verbs in Passive Voice. Make up 10 sentences of your own.
VI. Make your own short story about your favourite Russian writer.
VII. Who are the following quatations about? Find Russian equivalents to them.
“With the name of …, one has a brain-wave of the Russian national poet. There is Russian nature, Russian language, Russian character in him… The very life of his is perfectly Russian” (N.V.Gogol).
“We should not forget that he had to undertake two missions solely, which were separated in other countries by a century of more, namely, to determine the language and to create literature” (I.S.Turgenev).
UNIT VII
ENGLISH LITERATURE
The literature of England is one of the highest achievements of a great nation. English literature is a history in itself. The story of English literature begins with the Germanic tradition of the Anglo-Saxon settlers. “Beowulf” stands at its head. Its roots date back to hundreds of years. It is impossible to list every important work of English-language literature. However, some famous writers should be named. Chaucer is referred to as the father of English literature. Chaucer was one of the world's greatest storytellers. His “Canterbury Tales” is a masterpiece, it is a collection of stories in verse told by people of different social standing. The great genius of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). He wrote more than 35 plays as well as 154 sonnets and 2 narrative poems ('Venus and Adonis', 1593; 'The Rape of Lucrece', 1594).
The Romantic Era is represented by Robert Burns and Lord George Gordon Byron. The writer who set the example of historical novel was Sir Walter Scott.
It was in the Victorian era (1837–1901) that the novel became the leading literary genre in English.The 1830s and 1840s saw the rise of social novel.
An early example is Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist (1837–38). Charles Dickens (1812–70) emerged on the literary scene in the late 1830s and soon became probably the most famous novelist in the history of English literature.
Works written in English have won twenty-six Nobel Prizes in Literature. Nine of them were won by authors from the United Kingdom.
Among novelists of worldwide reputation are Graham Greene, Angus Wilson, William Golding, Iris Murdoch, Muriel Spark, etc.
I. Skim the following text and give a short summary of it.
II. Read and translate the text into Russian and Ossetian.
III. a) Read and translate the following quotations into Russian and Ossetian.
B) Agree or disagree with them giving your opinion.
C) Choose the one you like best and write a short essay proving your point of view.
ON BOOKS AND READING
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed
and digested. (Frances Bacon)
There are books to read, books to reread, and books not to read at all. (Oscar Wild)
I would sooner read a time-table or a catalogue than nothing at all.
(W.Somerset Maugham)
A man ought to read just as inclination leads him; for what he reads as a task will do him little good. (Samuel Johnson)
In science, read the newest works, in literature, the oldest. (Edward Bulwar-Litton)
b) What do you know about the authors of these sayings? Find and render some information about them.
IV. Translate the following quotation into English. What do you know about Shakespeare? Dwell on it.
Дугœй дугмœ, зœрдœйœ зœрдœмœ цœуынц Шекспиры сонеттœ. Дунейы алы адœмтœ сœ cдзурын кодтой сœ мадœлон œвзœгтыл. (Кокайты Тотрадз)
V. Find nessesary information about Shakespeare before giving correct answers.
How well do you know Shakespeare?
1. In what year was Shakespeare born?
B. 1616
C. 1558
D. 1592
2. Shakespeare was born in what town or city?
A. London
B. Stratford-upon-Avon
D. Oxford
3. The names of Shakespeare’s father and mother were:
A. Abraham and Sara
B. William and Anne
C. John and Mary
4. Who did Shakespeare marry?
A. Judith Sadler
B. Susanna Hall
C. Anne Hathaway
D. Mary Queen of Scots
5. Shakespeare was the father of how many children?
A. 3
B. 2
C. 10
D. 1
6. The London theaters were closed on account of a virulent outbreak of the plague in 1593 and part of 1594. Specifically, what disease was this?
A. Tuberculosis
B. The Plague
C. The pox
7. Is it possible to say in exactly what order Shakespeare’s plays were written?
A. Yes
B. No
8. In 1594 Shakespeare became one of the founding members of what acting company?
A. The Lord Chamberlain’s Men
B. The King’s Men
C. The Royal Shakespeare Company
9. In what year was the Globe Theater built?
A. 1594
B. 1599
C. 1608
D. 1613
10. Which five plays are known as his “great tragedies”?
A. Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth, King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra
B. The Merchant of Venice, Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV Part 2, Henry V, Twelfth Night
C. King John, Henry VI Part 1, Richard II, Richard III, Henry VIII
D. Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, Coriolanus, Timon of Athens, Cymbeline
11. In what year did Shakespeare die?
A. 1599
B. 1616
C. 1623
D. 1642
VI. Compare the Russian and Ossetian translations of Shakespeare’s sonnets. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of the translation.
Sonnet 116
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove:
O, no! it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
Мешать соединенью двух сердец
Я не намерен. Может ли измена
Любви безмерной положить конец?
Любовь не знает убыли и тлена.
Любовь — над бурей поднятый маяк,
Не меркнущий во мраке и тумане,
Любовь — звезда, которою моряк
Определяет место в океане.
Любовь — не кукла жалкая в руках
У времени, стирающего розы
На пламенных устах и на щеках,
И не страшны ей времени угрозы.
А если я не прав и лжет мой стих —
То нет любви и нет стихов моих!
(перевод С.Маршака)
Дыууœ уды 'хсœн не 'рлœудзынœн œз.
Нœй ахœм уарзтыл мисхалбœрц œууœндœн,
Чысыл ысхуыстœй чи ива йœ хуыз,
Кœнœ дымгœйау чи кœна дыууœрдœм.
Уарзт цины рухс у — чи судзы фœрнœй,
Фыдтымыгьтœ йœм никуы сты нымады.
Уарзт стъалы у — кœд œм œххœссœн нœй,
Уœддœр нын у фœндагамонœг царды.
Нœу рœстазгœн дœр хъазœнхъул, кœд œй
Йœ цыргъ цœвœгœй хаттœй-хатт фœлвары,
Нœ цуды бонтœ-афœдзты уœзœй, —
Œнус-œнус бœлвырд бœрœг фœдары.
Кœд афтœ нœу œмœ нœ дзурын раст,
Нœ уыд зœххыл уœд амонд œмœ уарзт.
(перевод Т.Кокайты)
VII. Find the correct variant A,B,C, or D.
WILLIAM THACKERAY
William Thackeray was born in 1811 in Calcutta.___ 1 his parents sent
him to England where he __2__ his early training at the famous Charter House School.Then he went to Cambridge, but __3___ to take his degree. He __4__ an artist.
As he had some___ 5___ he went to the Continent and spent some time
travelling.
When he____ 6___ to England he was compelled to turn his attention to
literature as__ 7___. He wrote many humorous tales and sketches and some
othher works of satirical character. He was also a clever writer of magazine articles.
Soon___ 8___, Vanity Fair, began to appear in a monthly magazine. Then
came another novel, and in 1851 he became a public lecturer. For his lectures he chose The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century. These lectures were
very popular in London._ 9___. Thackeray___ 10____ these lectures in
Scotland and America.
Thackeray wrote some other novels and became very popular and famous
_11______. This distinguished novelist died suddenly_ 12___ 1863.
1.________ A. At seven C. When he had seven years
B. At the age of seven D. When he was seven years
2.________ A. receives C. had received
B. received D. was receiving
3.________ A. did not wait to take C. did not wait taking
B. expected no taking D. hadn't expected to take
4._________ A. made up one's mind C. made up his mind becoming
to become
B. made up his mind to D. made up mind to become
become
5.________ A. destiny C. fortune
B. fate D. rich
6.________ A. returned C. had returned
B. was returned D. was returning
7.________ A. means of support C. a means of a support
B. a mean of support D. a means of support
8.________ A. the first he's novel C. his the first novel
B. his first novel D. the first of his novel
9.________ A. After C. After that time
B. After then D. Afterwards
10.________ A. listened to C. delivered
B. explained D. put down
11.________ A. at the world C. throughout the world
B. through world D. in world
12.________ A. at the end of C. on the end of
B. in the end of D. end of
VIII. Prepare a topic of your own “My favourite English/American writer”, give a talk on it in the classroom, and be ready for a discussion.
UNIT VIII
Ossetian deities and the OssetIAN epos
The Greek sources on Sarmatian-Alanian mythologies are not numerous. As Herodot said, the solar deity was 'the Lord of the Massagetics'. We know about mysteries of the Aphrodite, Tanais (deities of the river of Don) and Pharsiris ”with a brilliant face”. The main thing in a cultural heritage of the Alanians is Nart epos which was written down in 19 century A.D. It was distributed among many peoples of the Caucasus, but in the most full edition is kept by the Ossets, descendants from the Alanians. The fine arts of the Sarmanic-Alanians tribes are not so perfect as the Scythian ones, but are rich enough with antropomorthic motives. Comparing them with the plots of Nart epos, we can reveal images of ancient mythology.
In legends of the Ossets the God of the Clear Sky, probably, is replaced with the Christian god-father. Thunderous function belongs to god Wacilla that is translated as 'Saint Ilya'. Frequently he is represented by awhole set of inhabitants of heaven. An identification of the ancient God of Thunder with a prophet Ilya is typical for peoples of the East Europe.
Barastyr can pretend to a role of God of the Earth Powers - the owner of a next world; Don-Bettyr (literally 'water Peter') - the lord of waters and a water empire (compare Greek Poseidon, Irish Donn, mythological images of the southern rivers of the East Europe (Myths of nations of the world, 1998. v. 1, with. 531); Afsati - the lord of noble animals represented by the horseman on a deer (this god had a sanctuary at Krivoi Rog); Falvara (sacred Flora and Laurels) - the patron of the cattle. There is a special deity Tutyr - the owner of wolves. There is a myth how Tutyr beat out one of Falvara's eyes so that he could not see wolves creeping to his herds. There are the images of twins-primogenitors representing the type of a Hero similar to the Greek Dioscuri and Indian Asvinau.
The type of a Cultural Hero was personified by Wasgergi and, partly - by Atsamaz. Wasgergi (the name comes from 'Saint George') was thought to be a horseman riding on a white three-legged horse (by the way, Odin in one of the German fairy tales rides on such a horse too). He was considered to be a divine ancestor of the Narts and their patron. Atsamaz, the owner of a magic pipe (a present of Afsati), symbolized a dying and reviving nature.
At last, the type of a Great Goddess is divided between Bitsenon, Dzerassa and some other female characters.
I. Read and translate the text.
I. Give a short summary of the text.
II. What deities of the world mythology do you know? Compare them with the Ossetian deities.
IV. Translate the following text into English.
Нœ национ културœн аргъ кœнын фœнд куы скœнœм, уœд дзы сœйраг бынат œрцахсдзœн, не 'взаджы фарсмœ, нœ хъœздыг œмœ нœ рœсугъд фолклор: нœ таурœгътœ, нœ кадджытœ, нœ зарджытœ, нœ аргъœуттœ, не 'мбисœндтœ. Кœд иннœ културджын адœмтœй дœр алчи йœ фолклоры хœзнатœй стыр буц у, уœд сын мах та уœлдай аргъ уымœн хъуамœ кœнœм œмœ œнœуи културы œнтыстытœй ныронг фœстœзад кœй уыдыстœм, кœй нœм нœ уыд рагон чиныгфыссыны куыст, кœй нœм нœ уыд стыр, фœтœн œмœ рагон бындурыл œвœрд литератур, кœй нын нœ уыд чингуытœй фидаргонд œмœ бœлвырд истори.
PART III
OSSETIA PAST AND PRESENT
UNIT I
FROM THE SCYTHIANS TO THE OSSETIANS
Preface
The Caucasian mountains have from time immemorial been at the crossroads of cultures. Once being a barrier between early urban civilizations in Mesopotamia and their trade centres in the south, and nomad cultures in the steppes of the north, the scene changed when Scythians and Sarmatians, and other linguistically Iranian tribes penetrated the mountains displacing each other. One of the most powerful Sarmatian tribes was the Alans who for some time became the dominating power in the Caucasus. Some of their clans settled and mixed with the native population. According to historical sources the Caucasian Alans were called Os, a name the Ossetes of today still carry.
Many of the North Caucasus people share similar cultural traits and values. They have developed due to similar life conditions and these were enforced during the wars against colonization. The North Caucasians were reputed to be fierce warriors, both in their engagements against outside invaders and in internal fights against each other. They handled their horses and daggers with equal excellence. Looting was a way of life, along with herding and cultivating the soil. Paintings show them as slim, handsome and dark. They have been portrayed by the Russian as well as local poets as very hospitable, proud and fearless, and impossible to subdue.
The process of changing spheres of influence, changing patterns of settlement as well as blending and superseding of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups continued during Mongol raids in the thirteenth century. Ghenghis Khan's troops crossed the Caucasian mountains from the south forcing the local population up into the high mountains. The mountains themselves protected its inhabitants against the invaders, and more than once nomads who had threatened the population on the fertile plains chose to retreat into the mountains once they were defeated by newcomers.
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Answer these questions in note form to get your points:
1. What peoples in the North Caucasus do you know?
2. What similar cultural traits and values do they share?
3. What language groups do they belong to?
4. What do the Ossetians have in common with other Caucasian peoples?
5. What are the peculiarities in culture, language, customs, etc. of the Ossetian people?
III. Complete these sentences from the text by adding suitable words to the end of each one:
1. The Caucasian mountains have from the time immemorial been at _________.
2. Many of the Caucasian peoples share similar ___________.
3. Paintings show the North Caucasians as ____________.
4. The mountains themselves protected its inhabitants against __________.
5. Some of their clans settled and mixed with ____________.
UNIT II
The SCYTHIANS
The Scythians were a wide-ranging Iranian group of horse nomads who emerged out of central Asia during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. They were among the first people to completely master the art of horsemanship, and their ferocity and mobility became legendary because of it. Superb mounted archers, they also maintained a brilliant and artistically gifted culture whose artifacts can be appreciated in museums around the world. Information about them is fragmentary; much of it derives from the Greek historian Herodotos, who is said to have visited them.
Concerning their origins, the Scythians claimed the legend that they descended from the three sons of Targitai, to whom they ascribed a prodigious birth. The mythical sons of Targitai were Lipoksai, Arpoksai and Kolaksai. These names indeed are not related to certain patriarchs, but rather express their character. There are two main accepted keys to decipher the meaning of the names of the legendary Scythian ancestors: one based on old Persian and Ossetian languages.
One of the best known features typical of Scythians was their ability in manufacturing gold, usually to make jewels that they wore in considerable amounts, and even their horses were adorned with golden outfits. Indeed, without any existing Scythian written record, most of what is known about their culture is derived from the objects attesting their extremely fine workmanship that have been found in their frozen tombs in the Eurasian plains.
The Scythians, pushed away by the Assyrians, occupied the northern shores of the Black Sea from the Tanais to the Danube until the third century bc, when the Sarmatians virtually obliterated them from history. Very probably the conquerors took many of the characteristics of the subdued Scythians, so that outwardly they seemed to be the same people.
I. Read and translate the text.
II. Dwell on the following:
1. What peoples descending from the nomads do you know?
2. What language group did the Scythian language belong to?
3. What other languages of the same group do you know?
4. What territory did the Scythians occupy?
5. What contemporary states are situated on this territory?
III. Choose the best answer:
1. The Scythians emerged out of:
a) north of China;
b) Central Asia;
c) South of Europe.
2. One of the best known features typical of the Scythians was their ability in manufacturing:
a) woodwork;
b) gold;
c) textile.
3. The Scythians occupied the territory:
a) from the Urals to the Black Sea;
b) from the Tanais to the Danube;
c) from the Danube to the Rein.
UNIT III
THE SARMATIANS
Text I
In the third century the Sarmatians, a group of warrior tribes, began to move in from central Asia. They were ethnically Iranian and had replaced the Scythians as the ruling class by the second century. They were nomadic cattle-breeders living in wheeled felt huts, but adopted much of the Scythian culture and maintained the trade ties with the Black Sea Greeks.
The Sarmatians were a people originally of Iranian stock who migrated from Central Asia to the Ural Mountains between the 6th and 4th century BC and eventually settled in most of southern European Russia and the eastern Balkans. Like the Scythians to whom they were closely related, the Sarmatians were highly developed in horsemanship and warfare. Their administrative capability and political astuteness contributed to their gaining widespread influence. By the 5th century BC the Sarmatians held control of the land between the Urals and the Don River. In the 4th century they crossed the Don and conquered the Scythians, replacing them as rulers of almost all of southern Russia by the 2nd century. The Alans, from whom the modern Ossetians descend, were a branch of the Sarmatians.
The Sarmatians did not forge iron; according to Pausanias, they used wood, stone and even bone to make their weapons. It was their battle tactics that proved successful: relying mainly on their horses rather than on their weapons, they used to ride around their enemy and fling their arrows at them instead of engaging a hand to hand fighting.
The high amount of offensive weapons found in Sarmatian graves indicates a military-oriented nomadic life. Some of the rich burial sites of the Sarmatian aristocrats indicate a social stratification characteristic of the nomadic society. Class formation processes were accelerated greatly as the nomads from the southern Ural steppes and Volga region advanced westward and came into contact with Greek and Roman agriculture, industry, and trade centers.
Text II
The peculiarity that characterized the Sarmatians – the warrior women – was emphasized by ancient Greek writers. Sarmatian women were very active in the military life of their people. There are a considerable number of graves in which Sarmatian women were buried with their own weapons, and are richer in ornaments than those of the male soldiers. Such a strong character of female Sarmatians may be a long-lasting tradition: Tamyris, queen of the Massagetas, headed personally her army and became famous for having defeated the Persian kings in 3231 (529 BC). According to Herodotus and other writers, a Sarmatian girl must remain virgin and cannot marry until she has killed a man in battle. Other writers witness that Sarmatian women have been seen engaged in hunting and war together with their husbands and dressed like them. Both versions may be true, as they may regard different tribes, clans or social classes having their own rules.
Animal style ornamentation began to die out. New types of swords, bronze mirrors, and decorations started to appear and the earlier Sarmatian style pottery underwent significant changes. The tribes from the trans-Ural steppes brought new techniques for pottery manufacturing, including the mixing of talc into the paste. New forms such as round-bottom pots and uniquely rich ornamental motifs were incorporated into the Sarmatian pottery style.
One of the most characteristic traits of the Late Sarmatian culture was the artificial deformation of skulls. This was probably accomplished by tying a soft cloth around the infant's head forcing an elongation of the cranium. This cultural trait was specific to the populations living east of the Don River and included the Southern Ural population. In contrast to the Middle Sarmatian culture, the predominant orientation of the deceased was to the north.
The religious practices were consistent among the Sarmatian nomads. They were typical of the clan-tribal cults of pre-Zoroastrian Iran. The gods were personified. Those gods of nature were the sky, the earth, and fire. Gods pertaining to social concepts were the domestic hearth and war. The evidence of fire cult practices is exemplified by charcoal and ashes found in the burials.
III. Skim the texts and dwell on the following:
1. The route of migration of the Sarmatians.
2. The women warriors.
3. Sarmatian culture.
4. Sarmatian religion and social Class.
IV. Choose the best answer:
1. The Sarmatians were ethnically:
a) Celtic;
b) Iranian;
c) Germanic.
2. Tamyris was the Queen of:
c) Goths;
d) Alans;
e) Massagetaes.
3. One of the most characteristic traits of the Sarmatian culture was:
a) the artificial deformation of sculls;
b) the pyramids;
c) the mummification of the dead.
III. Fill in the blanks:
1. They were nomadic cattle breeders living in wheeled felt _______.
2. By the 6th century their descendants had disappeared from the historical _____.
3. Animal style _______ began to die out.
4. The most fascinating feature of Sarmatian cultural is their women ______
5. Those ________ of nature were the sky, the earth, and fire.
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