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l USA 280,000,000
l India 100,000,000
l UK 55,000,000
l Canada 17,000,000
l Australia 15,682,000
l South Africa 3,500,000
l New Zealand 3,312,000
The USA 2007 – 5 years and older
l 267,444,149 - 95,19%
l 225,505,963 - Mother tongue
l 41,938,196 - additional language - do not speak English at home but know it ‘very well’ or ‘well’
l Great Britain (David Crystal) 2003 - 97,74%
1,500,000 - additional language
l Canada 85,91%
7,551,390 - additional language
l Australia (2001) – 97,03%
l New Zealand – 97,82%
l Ireland – 96,3%
| l Germany 56%, 272,504-L1 l France 39% no L1 l Italy 34% no L1 l Spain 22% no L1 l The Netherlands – 90% (2012), no L1 l Austria – 73% l Israel - 84,97% l Denmark - 86% l Switzerland – 61,28% l Norway – 89% l Singapore – 80% | l China –0.83% - 10,000,000 l Russia 4,9% 6,963,511 l Kazakhstan - 15,4% l Bulgaria 25% l Slovakia 26% l Slovenia 59% l Lithuania 38% l Latvia 46% l Estonia 50% |
l 2/3 world scientists write in English
l ¾ world mail in English
l 80% electronic information
l In 1997 81% of Internet users used English, in September 2002 only 36,5%
n World companies adopt English as a working language:
n In Germany 98% specialists in Physics and 93% in Chemistry communicate in English
n Besides economic and political factors, vogue for English computers & electronic produce made their contribution→ communicative shift (Lotman)
or semiotic revolution (Kabakchi): Computers (IT) + English
Semiotic revolution has changed the nature of communication making it
n Electronically/ digitally-based, computer-mediated, in virtual world with focus on audio and video
In Europe:
n $ 600 mln for translation papers into the languages of member-states
n 47% residents of EU claim English as their second foreign language
n Language policy in different countries aimed at protection their mother-tongue, for example, in 1992 Academy of France published the Dictionary of French with 6000 borrowings from other languages despite all criticism of purists. Among the words forbidden to use are: baby-sitter, boss, camping, cheeseburger, cocktail, copyright, drugstore, fast-food, know-how, marketing, parking, pickpocketing, sandwich, self-made man, sponsor, supermarket etc.
n One of the reasons English words squeeze out French equivalents is that English ones are much shorter:
French VS English
n Téléscopie fax
n Courriel e-mail
n Imprimante printer
n Latin America complains about English invasion, about exposure to English but 57% young Spanish-speaking people claim their native language is Spanish but give preference to English in numerous situations,
Some sociolinguists claim that English becomes endangered in the USA as the Chinese increased 98%, Vietnamese 150%, Korean by 127% during the last decade, the number of native English speaking population (WASP) in the USA decreases as a result of graying and browning of America. After President Obama’s inauguration the newspapers published photos with caption “ Will America paint the White House Black?”
Ø In comparison with other languages English is presented as
English VS other languages
n World localized
n Link confining
n Window closed
n Neutral biased
Criticism of English
n Negative impact of English was first noticed in British colonies, in India, Ghandi, national leader, stated it brings alienation, intoxication, denationalization and mental slavery, later on other terms were coined internationally: Linguistic imperialism, linguicism, anglocentricity, glottopolitics
l Donor-recipient relations,
l Dominant and domineering cultures,
l English linguistic hegemony
l Linguistic imperialism
l Linguistic globalisation.
l Anglo-American hegemonic culture
l English as ‘a killer language’
l English-Only Europe? (2003) by Phillipson
l “the overarching dominance of anglophone nativespeakerism”
n English & Ideology: Some politicians state that British Council was set up as an institution to promote English, that English invasion was masterminded.
n In China teachers of English initiated the slogan which has become global “ Think global, teach local! Mind the gap! “
n American English also contributed to English invasion: in 1986 the Economist assembled a list of English words that have become more or less universal: airport, hotel, passport, telephone, bar, soda, cigarette, sport, golf, tennis, stop, O.K.,weekend, jeans, know-how, sex, no problem
English and other languages: defeat or interaction?
n -ing family is the most popular except in French:
Un lifting, le pushing, un dancing, parking, camping, un lashing, a living, smoking
Ø Pressing Fr. – a dry-cleaner’s shop Germ – tackling as at football It. - putting pressure, Chile - bluyins - jeans
n Portug. Queque -little cake
n Serbo-Croatian – nylon hotel – brothel nylon beach – for nudists
n It. Le bronzing (sunbathing)
Japan
| n Sumato - smart n Nyuu ritchi – newly rich n Haikutasu – high class n Kyapitaru gein – capital gain n Rushawa – rush hour | n Erebeta – elevator n Nekutai – necktie n Bata – butter n Beikon – bacon n Sarada - salad |
n Pepadoraiba –paper driver – not practising driver
Singapore Shims (she-hims) transvestites
German:
n Brunchen, clicken, fighten, jobben, shoppen, mobben, outen, relaxen etc.
n Old-timer, handy
Sport terms in Germany
n Aerobic classes Warm-up Cool-down jogging
n English German
n Professional (pro) profi
n Last but not least last not least
n Take-off start
n Veteran car old-timer
n Male model dress model
The Netherlands/ Many phrasesin Dutch were triggered by English ones:
n Bij de veg – by the way
n Dat is alles voor nu – that’s all for now
n plakje cake – piece of cake
n Niet mijn copie thee – not my cup of tea
n Zie je later – see you later
n Dutch equivalents are no longer used: Leidinggevende → manager, Ontspannen → relax, Dienstverlening → services
l Even slogans of international companies located in the Netherlands are in English: Heinekken – ‘Heinekken refreshes the parts that other beers cannot reach’
l Philips - ’ Let’s make things better’,
Sense &Simplicity
l T-mobile – ‘life is for sharing’
n Many words appeared in different historical periods to describe mixture of English and Dutch: Nederengels, Dunglish, Amerilands, Englutch, Engerlands, Dutchlish, Dutchglish
n IT loans in the Netherlands
n Password
n User
n Surfen browsen bloggen mailen deleten printen forwarden editen typen
n Sports loans - no Dutch equivalents for sport terms (racen, squashen, joggen, fitnessen, golf, keeper, penalty
Code-switching
l The room is vol people (full of)
l I have ook received it (too)
l They try, nee, they tried to help us (no)
l And then you neem another one (took)
l He distributed it aan everybody (to)
English and other languages: false friends of interpreters
Pakistan
n Bootpolish – to lick sb’s boots
n Cheap –sly, petty, low-class
n Lift – special attention
n Light – electric power
n Meter – he’s lost his temper “His meter has gone full circle”
Korea
n Second – kept mistress
n Super- supermarket
n T- T-shirt
n Talent- TV actor
n Old miss – unmarried woman past conventional age of marrying, spinster
n Over - overcoat
n Pro- TV/ radio guide
n Rouge - lipstick
Thai
n Air- air-conditioned
n Apartmet
n Campaign – advertising
n Fan – girl/boyfriend
n Over – overexaggerate
n Repeat – repeat a year in a college
n Smart – elegantly dressed
Japan
n Companion – attractive young lady at the exhibition
n Half- half-Japanese
n Hearing – listening
n Hot –hot coffee
n Talent –young media celebrity
n Silver – relating to old age
n Text – textbook of foreign language
n Tobacco - cigarette
n Italian - fame – rumour
n Spanish – assistant - daily helping woman
n Audience- court hearing
n Librarian – book seller
n Mascara – disguised person
Ghana (Семенец О.Е.,1985)
Linguist – a person who speaks on behalf of a tribe leader
Oracle - herbalist
(Quack - in Western Africa)
Cover cloth - overcoat
Canvas – shoes
A motor - bicycle
Storey – (storeyhouse) – more than 1
Electrolux – any fridge
Colgate - any ---
Kodak - any ---
Hoover - any –
To take seed/ to take in - to become pregnant
Euro-English
l Mainland Europeans, in the process of creating a pan-European culture in and through English, can also be seen to be on the periphery. English, for them, can act as a form of empowerment.
l One indication of this development into a separate variety is the use of Eurospeak or Eurojargon within EU institutions. First recognized as a lexical register utilized by Eurocrats, the conceptualization Eurospeak is now becoming much more commonly noticed and cited.
l Lexical items and multi-word units peculiar to Europe, such as
l Brussels to refer collectively to EU institutions,
l Maastricht to refer to the agreement signed there,
l Schengen land
l Euro land, Euro area, and Euro zone for those countries where the euro has been adopted as the currency,
l Eurosceptic for someone skeptical of European integration,
l internal market, a designation for the EU as a free-trade zone, and
l Berlaymont, a synonym for “red tape,” as well as designations such as the “four freedoms”
l Indeed, the term member state itself, a European invention, says much about how Europeans are molding language to accommodate a new political reality.
English as a GLOCAL language
l Who owns English? Not Britain anymore.English is beyond Britain and Europe. This fact resulted into a number of new notions and oppositions: Englishness, Anglocentrism, Britocentrism, Britishness, VS Europeanness of English.
l Initially British Lingaphone company offered courses of language. The term “British English” was non-existent. English was viewed as real stuff and smth fundamental/ Divergence became visible and audible when the first British colony in North America was set up in 1607 and became the first step towards English globalization. First Webster Dictionary in the 19th century brought spelling division between AmE and BrE
Lots of new terms like Franglaise = Frenglish, Germish = Denglish, Swedlish, Spanglish, Janglish = Japlish, Konglish, Portuguish are arguments un favour of English spread and language interference.
Modern concept of International English is a result of evolution. but the division between the members of the binary oppositions and tertiary oppositions become disputable:
l Standardisation & diversification
l Intellibility & practicality
l ENL – English as a native language (anglophone speakers)- L1
l ESL - English a the second language L2
l EFL - English a a foreign language L3
tripartite model
NB! 110 territories worldwide, ex-USSR is not mentioned
l EIL - English as International language
l EILTS- English as International language Testing System – standard for Commonwealth countries
New concepts relevant to English spread are:
l Neutrality VS cultural/ linguistic imperialism, new form of impact and expansion mitigate influence of the USA and Great Britain
l Appropriation, for example, International English in computer industries
New Englishes. Standards
l Metropolitan standards: The term would have once been applicable only to standard English of England.
l Colonial standards: The colonial history of English has made it an important language in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe)./ The varieties spoken there are referred to in historical dialectology as ‘extraterritorial’ Englishes.
l Regional dialects: These are the varieties that may be distinguished on the basis of regional variation within metropolis and colony.
l Social dialects: identifiable varieties within a region along the lines of class and ethnicity may occur.
l In London there is the difference between Cockney of the working classes, Received pronunciation (RP) / ‘Estuary English’ (Rosewarne 1994).
l Pidgin Englishes: Pidgins are defined prototypically as rudimentary languages that have no native speakers, though they may subsequently gain in complexity.
l Creole Englishes: These languages are ‘mixed’ in the sense that typically their grammars and lexicons come from different sources
Latest research in World Englishes:
l Content analysis of WE
l Cultural-conceptual analysis of WE
l Politics of code-switching
l Core and periphery of WE
l Corpus –based exploration
l Education, language and the rights of the child
l American English as a medium of intercultural communication
l WE – response to globalization
l English in Japanese pop-music
l British attitude towards variability of English
l English is lingua franca in Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands
l Most popular terms to name the role and diversification of English are dialect, lingualect, variant, variation, variety of English
There have been lots of projects to simplify English and make it more available to millions of people:
Simplification of English
l Basic English – constructed language,
l 1930 Charles Kay Ogden - 7 weeks
l Words selected via tests -850 words
l Simplified grammar which keeps it correct
l Idioms not included
l Words are pluralized with the help of S
l Each of 300 verbs can be turned into nouns by adding ER, ING; into adj by adding ING, ED
l Adjectives turn into adverbs by LY
l Adjectives can be inverted with UN
Operations – 100 words:
l Come, give, get, go, keep, let, put, seem, take, be, do, have, say, see, send, may, will
l About, across, after, at, among, between, by, down, from, in
l A, any, every, no, other, such, some
l North, south, east, west, please, yes
Things – 400 words:
Things – 200 picturable words:
Qualities - descriptive words
l Able, acid, angry, automatic
l Waiting, warm, wet, wide, wise, yellow, young
Qualities -50 opposites:
l Awake, bad, bent, bitter, certain, cold, complete, cruel,
l Thin, white, wrong
l EASY English – simplified at Level A, Level B
l A – 1200 words as a foreign language
l B - 2800 words, Cambridge First Certificate
l Commonwealth English – standard English spoken within Commonwealth
l Plain English (simple writing style)
l Globish - simplified, most common English words, made as a result common practice
Common Features of WE
Many New Englishes show a greater preference for forming yes/no questions by a rising intonation pattern, rather than by auxiliary inversion.
l She’s coming tomorrow? (=‘Is she coming tomorrow?’ – IndSAf Eng)
l She promised you? (Sgp Eng;
l Anthony learned this from you or you learned this from Anthony? (Sgp Eng;
l To my sister sometime I speak English. (Sgp Eng;
l Q: Zulu? (i.e. Do you speak Zulu as well?)
l A: Yah, and Zulu I speak.
Bokamba (1992:138--40) notes a common tendency in sub-Saharan African Eng to reduplicate adjectives to form adverbs:
l Quickquick ‘quickly’;
l small-small ‘in small doses’;
l slow-slow ‘slowly’.
l Kachru notes examples like different-different things and one-one piece.
l The semantics here is distributive, with a stylistic nuance of emphasis.
l In IndSAf Eng wh- words can be reduplicated with the semantics ‘plural/distributive’ based on details of the syntax of the Indic substrates.
l Who-who came? (= ‘Who (of several people) came?)
l What-what they said? (= ‘What (different) things did they say?’)
l The use of -s plural markers is overgeneralized. luggages, furnitures, firewoods, or grasses/ discontents, informations
Singlish
l English in Singapore = English –based creole spoken colloquially in Singapore
l Numerous cases of code-switching (Chinese, Malay, Tamil)
l Broken English/ bad English → Speak Good English Movement
l Schools discourage students from taking Singlish, but Singlish is often used for humorous effect, when the audience is local., in the Army, in coffee-shops & restaurants
l Singlish as a sociolect phenomenon. Sometimes, analysts prefer to use the terms basilang, mesolang and acrolang, rather than basilect, mesolect and acrolect, to emphasise that they are dealing with developing competence in an L2
Acrolectal - high-class form, well-educated people in informal situations, close to BrE
This guy’s Singlish is very good
Mesolectal – middle class, semi-formal situations
Dis guy Singlish very powerful one
Basilectal – colloquial, unique lexical, phonological & grammatical features
Dis guy Singlish is bey powerful one
Singlish Phonology
l /p/ t/ k/ become unaspirated esp among Malay Singaporeans →
Pat, tin, come → bat, din, gum
l /t/ /d/ → three → tree, then → den
l The distinction between /l/ & /r/ not found at basilectal level - “Use your blain!”
l Plural – s is often omitted which might be the result of Chinese influence which does not distinguish between single and plural forms
l Singlish is syllable-timed compared with other varierties of English which are stress-timed
l Pitch tones are well-defined, tones resemble Chinese
l Singlish tends to preserve tone of loan words from Mandarin and other languages
Singlish Grammar
Nouns are optionally marked for plurality. Articles are optional too.: He can play piano. I like to read novel. Your computer got virus one, izzit?
As a copular and auxiliary verb be is often omitted: Dis house very nice/ Dat car not worth the money / You looking for trouble, izzit?
Past Tense markers are optional: He talk for so long, never stop, not even when I ask him. I eat liao (I ate or I have eaten) How come he never pay just now? (Negation+ past tense marker)
Interrogative This book you want or not? Can or not? They never study, is it? You don’t like that, is it?
Reduplication My boy-boy is going to primary school. We two friend-friend one. Want to go Orher walk walk see see or not? (Orchard Road) You got take the small-small one.
l Kena is an auxiliary to mark the passive voice: He was scolded – He kena scold (negative evauation) VS * he kena praised.
Singlish Discouse Particles
Lah - Drink, lah! – Come on, drink! (in the end of the sentence to assert solidarity)
What / wat/ - But he very good at sports what!
Mah – This one can also work mah!
Leh – command, complaint, claim:
Give me leh!
Daughter: Mum, it’s private. How can I let you read it?
Mother: Can la. I’m your own mother.
Wife: You bought cheese, Farouk? (= ‘Did you buy cheese, Farouk?’)
Husband: No’, but lot butter I bought. (= ‘No, though I did buy a lot of butter’) (No’ = [noυ])
Why didn’t you come in?
B: You told me to wait here, what
Manglish / Malgish
Variant of colloquial English spoken in Malaysia. The language shares a substantial pool with Singlish, some experts claim they are the same languages with a few slang words found in one and non-existent in another.
Malay is the country’s official language since 1968. As English is widely spoken, many Malay words penetrated into informal English or Mangled English. The impact of other languages (Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Hokkien) spoken in Malaysia is also taken into account.
Many speakers of Manglish belonging to various ethnic groups tend to pepper their speech with the words from their mother tongue which is the example of code-switching
Manglish particles
l Lah – used in the end of the sentence to affirm a statement which often ends with an exclamation mark Don’t be an idiot lah! Mah – less intensive than lah
She’s like that mah
l Liao - means ‘ already’ No more liao!
l Meh – used in questions, often skeptical Really meh
l Lor - used when explaining smth Like that lor!
l One - used as an emphasis in the end of the sentence Why is she so naughty one?
l What - unlike AE & BrE is used with an exclamation mark
What! How could you do that?
Manglish Vocabulary
Kapster – a talkative person
Blur – confused
Jalan – to walk
Kena – to get caught
Makan – to eat
Minum – to drink
On/ off - to activate/ deactivate
Pon – to skip school
Saman – to issue a traffic ticket
HP (handphone) - mobile/ cell phone
KIV – keep in view - keep for further consideration
Outstation - out of town/ overseas
MC – He is on MC today (medical certificate) - sick note
Can - yes/ alright
Cannot - no
Photostat - photocopy, Xerox
Different meanings
l Driver - a personal chauffeur/ odd job man, often sent on errand
l Alphabet – a letter of alphabet (The word ‘vase’ has four alphabets.
Exclamations in Manglish
l Best/ syok – indicates that the object is superlatively good, Die/ finish/ gone – to indicate trouble like English ‘damn it’
l Many things were borrowed from Chinese dialects: Why are you so like that one? =
Why are you behaving in that way? (BrE)
Philippine English
English functions in Manila since 1762 when the British invaded the country, but got rooted in 1898 when the USA took the government. Americans set up education system with English as the language of education.
l After independence the Philippines government followed the same line with parallel usage of Filipino. In private schools arranged by Catholic Church dual system is valid and English prevails.
l American spelling prevails.
l Educated people prefer American pronunciation.
l Mispronunciation
lead /i/ as in leader
salmon / l/ is pronounced
climber / b/ is pronounced
Wrong syllables are stressed:
l Comfortable - /komFORtabl/
l Preferable /preFERabl/
l Admirable /adMYrabl/
l Category /kaTEGori/
l Ceremony /seREmoni/
l Short /u/ turns into long /u/:
Frustration / froostr../
Suspend /soospend/
T, k, p are pronounced without aspiration
Vocabulary and usage
C.R. – Comfort Room = toilet, bathroom
Get/ go down the bus – get off the bus
Open/ close the light – Switch on/off the
Every now and then - often
Japlish/ Janglish/ Engrish
l Japlish/ Janglish are typically considered more derogatory and referred to any East Asian language.
l Engrish is a pejorative term used to describe attempts of Japanese writers to create English words and phrases, or mistranslation of an original Japanese text, exotic embellishment of the text in ads.
l Engrish is applied to East Asian languages as they do not separate L and R sounds.
l Engrish refers to Japanese pronunciation of English loan words.
l Engrish occurs commonly in electronics produce manuals.
l Engrish is used in Japanese pop culture as English is considered to be extremely fashionable.
l Humorous English mistakes which appear in Japanese advertising and product design
l Engrish can be found in other countries but the funniest examples come from Japan
l Some of the English-based Japanese coinages can be used as Japanese originated English.
l Actually, walkman, karaoke, play station, case-by-case, or forward-looking have already been received internationally, while nighter (bargain), washlet, hot carpet, or paper driver may have a good chance of adoption if appropriately introduced.
Nihonglish
l Badly pronounced and ungrammatical Japanese produced by a native English speaker. Usage is intentional either with sarcastic or humorous intent. NB! Japanese bites back!
Variants of English
Australian English
Pork products are known
Sociolinguistic approach:
Diminutives which end in –ie or – o:
Abo – aborigine
Arvo – afternoon
Doco – documentary
Servo - service station/ petrol station
Bottle- o - liquor store
Rego /dz/ - vehicle registration
Diminutives which end in –ie or – o:
Compo – compenasation
Leso/ lesbo - lesbian
Ambo – ambulance
Filo – Filipino Americans
Diminutives which end in –ie or – o:
Barbie – barbecue
Bikkie – biscuit
Bikie - bycycle
Brekkie - breakfast
Brickie – brick layer
Mozzie - mosquito
New Zealand English
Maori impact
in flora & fauna (kiwi a bird, a NZ-er)
Community consultation
Health, education
government
Kia ora = be healthy/ hello, greeting
Haere ra = goodbye
Kia kaha - be strong/ moral support
Makariri nē? = cold isn’t it?/ greeting in the morning
Nē – isn’t it?
Half-pai (pai – means good) = half standard
Super – old age pension scheme
Sweet as - fine with me
Choice! = excellent idea
Cuzzie bro – close friend
Flatting = sharing a flat
Flash – stylish, expensive
Fulla – guy, taken from fella, fellow
Hard case- a person with a good sense of humour
Scarfie – a university student
Bring a plate = ads of self catering
Box of Birds, Box of Bees – fell very good
Having you on = pull sb’s leg
Indian English
British English and Scottish English are taught, the latter influenced Indian English with rhoticity and thrilled -r-.
RP is encouraged and promoted
Indian English has established itself as an audible distinct dialect with specific phrases
Obsolete forms of English, antiquated phrases which were fashionable 50 years ago
Indian English is an object of jokes due to ruined Grammar
BrE is popular with older generations, AmE – with younger, there are debates about variant to be adopted:
70% BBC English, 10% General American English, 17% Indian English
AmE grows popular due to TV, pop-culture, visits to the USA
AmE gradually dominates within academic, technical publications, mass media
/v/ < > /W/
Impact of Bengali, Hindi, Tamil → Benglish, Hindish, Tanglish
Progressive tense in stative verbs: I’m understanding, He is knowing the answer
Variation in number: he likes to pull your legs
Prepositions – to pay your attention on, discuss about
Tag questions: isn’t it? / no? in general questions; He’s here, no?
Word order: They’re late always. My all friends are waiting. Yes, I didn’t.
Past tense form: I had gone = I went
But & only as intensifiers: I was just joking but.
Open/ close = turn on/off
Overuse of words actually, basically, obviously in the beginning of the sentence
Overuse of the word different – different: We had gone to different different places.
Omission of the article: Let’s to ______city
Your good name please? = what’s your name?
Deadly = intensive (That movie is deadly)
Hi-fi = stylish (Your shoes are hi-fi)
Sexy = excellent & extremely cool (That’s a sexy car)
Hello! What do you want? = in telephone conversations
Back = ago: I met him 5 years back
Mr/ Mrs as common nouns: My Mrs is not feeling well
Uncle/ aunt to refer to someone significantly older
Repair = of a broken object: The TV became repair
Healthy = to refer to fat people
Dress - to refer to any clothes for men/ women/ children
Bath and bathe are interchangeable
Interjections
High-end-= of very high quality (sarcastically of work and people)
Oof! = distress& frustration
arey! Acchha! = to express range of emotions
Words from India in English
Jungle, bungalow, banana, pajamas, guru, shampoo
Canadian English
Major dialects are Newfounland, Eastern Canadian, Quebec, Central / Western, Ottawa Valley Twang
Canadian English/ Newfounland
Elements from European Languages of 15-17th centuries non-existent in Europe. Spanish, French, Irish, English
Spoken very quickly, not intelligible
biscuit cookie
queue line
flat apartment
fancy-dress party costume party
Pensioner retiree
lorry truck
football soccer
trousers pants
crisps potato chips
British and American automobile vocabulary
British American
windscreen windshield
bonnet hood
wing fender
quarterlight wing
boot trunk
indicator turn signal
hazard lights flashers
running lights parking lights
Tyre tire
n Among the countless American coinages are these:
radio, disc jockey, waterfront, right away, get along with, fall for, make the grade, get around to, babysitter, boyfriend and girlfriend, knowhow, in the red, hitchhike, show business, merger, publicity, executive, hindsight, commuter etc.
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