II. Writing Section

1. That's what Lena wrote in her project about ecological problems in her hometown. Her project is convincing. But there are eight mistakes, correct them.

There is a lot of factories and plants in my hometown. They discharge a lot of chemicals and dirty into the air. They poison water in the lovely river. Fish can't to live in it. Both clean air and clean water are necessary to our health. Our factories, plants, cars and buses need in good filters. When they will have them?

Besides, I'm very concerned about that new roads destroy the countryside.

I think people should find the right balance between our natural environment, industry and building of new roads.

2. Write a composition: Cars: the pros and cons.The table below will help you.

Pros	Cons
A comfortable and convenient way of travelling	The biggest single course of air pollution
Gives freedom and independence	Roads destroy countryside
Saves your time	Sitting in traffic jams is stressful and probably causes high blood pressure
Makes your life easier	Traffic accidents
	Requires parking space

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

On sustainable development

… Sober and unbiased analysis of the current ecological situation shows that the western civilization was developing mainly on the way of purely consumption vector of life and this finally led to destruction and degradation of nature. So Mr. O. Odoevsky was right saying that the western rationalism opened the gates of truth for us, but itself it did not manage to enter the gates.

The world community realized this and it led to framing of the concept of sustainable development, oriented on satisfaction of human needs, ensuring preservation of environment suitable for the future generations. Without conducting a detailed analysis of the essence of this concept, it is necessary to note its shortcoming from theoretical point of view. More over, as well, in the practical sphere it also seems to be a new Utopia and illusion. The above-said is proved by implementation of the concept in the richest country of the world — the USA, which concentrates up to 40% of the world's scientific potential and is having a considerable resource base. With the existing figure of growth of population in this country of 1% per annum the following picture is observed. Currently the population of the USA is 260,000,000 people, by the year 2030 it is expected to reach the figure of 350,000,000 citizens and 440,000,000 people in 2050. In the nearest future with the existing level of life the growth of population itself would turn to zero the 10% of natural resources being saved now. In order to maintain the current level of industrial pressure on environment consumption of resources in the nearest future shall be cut by half. I wonder whether this scenario is realistic?

At the same time, raising a problem in this way requires alternative proposals. One thing is clear, starting from philosophy of the New age and from the moment the natural science was framed, the scientific cognition was aimed at search of the most profitable variants of satisfaction of human needs, disregarding the laws of nature.

Such tendency of scientific development still exists. In particular the research conducted in the sphere of genetic engineering in essence ignores the laws of conservation of life, which were framed in the process of long-term biological evolution. So the potential threats, which might emerge in this case can be more horrible than the invention of atomic weapons, because the consequences of it cannot be predicted. In addition, in current conditions a man, as a biological species is subjected to radical transformation of its consti­tution. From the one hand, drastic changes of the environment are already affecting its genetic features — it leads to increase of genetic load of human population and finally, to biological degradation of humankind. Therefore it is understandable why mean and brute passions prevail, aggressiveness is growing, spiritual values are neglected, etc. From the other hand, creation of modern computed technological systems shall affect the formation of the future man.

Besides, now the man is acting as powerful factor of natural selection, defining the nature of biological evolution in general. Both factors equally change conformities to natural laws of evolution process and it is not always in the direction which is favorable for humankind.

Naturally, it is impossible to ignore the indisputable achievements of development of science and technology, defining omnipotence of the human's intellect, which resulted in creation of the most advanced technologies of the refined human's culture, sharp increase of the life-span and many other things. At the same time today it is becoming evident that economic development entirely oriented on growth of the Gross Domestic Product is the achievement of the past.

From the ecological point of view, social progress, defined by purely quantitative figures of growth of the Gross Domestic Product, proved its inefficiency, resulted in degrading of biosphere. As an alternative to such approach the world community suggested the so-called index of human deve­lopment. Average life-span, level of education and Gross Domestic Product are acting as its criteria. Therefore in the context of ideas of sustainable development it is important to develop educational and technological programs, the system of prohibitions on the nature of negative human's activity, measures to preserve health of people. If realized, such programs are enabling to minimize the industrial pressure on environment. The same time, development of such programs shall be based on the knowledge of the laws of biosphere. First of all, it is necessary to observe certain conditions: renewable resources shall be replenished; pollution shall not exceed its current level; it is necessary to adopt measures to reduce the rates of utilization of nonrenewable resources; it is necessary to minimize wastes due to introduction of the new techno­logies. These provisions shall form the basis for drafting of legislative acts in the sphere of environmental protection.

Solution of these tasks is closely connected with the question; whether a man a biological species can survive on the planet or there is an alternative to create technogenic civilization?

(Rachel L Carson, «The Sea Around Us»)

Global problems

Introduction

Global issues are so important that they may literally determine the future of the human species.

Political, social, environmental, economic, health, and security concerns are all impacted by global issues and are in themselves, global issues.

The very concept of issues that are global in scale is new.

The term "global issues" has only recently entered our vocabulary.

Global issues have, or hold the potential for, far-reaching impacts on people and the planet. Global issues are trans-national, or trans-boundary, and are beyond the capability of any one nation to resolve.

Global issues are persistent, or long-acting. Their onset may take years, decades, or even generations to be felt, and may require similar time frames to be resolved.

Global issues are interconnected. A change in one – whether for better or worse –exerts pressure for similar change in the others.

Global issues are not just events; rather they are the driving forces, or underlying causes, behind events.

Global issues are most often seen as problems.

But it is also possible to see them as opportunities, because they can compel us to change.

Rich / Poor Gap

There is a great disparity between rich and poor today.

This exists both within and between nations.

According to the United Nations, developed nations have 20 percent of the world’s population, but account for over 80 percent of the global Gross National Product (GNP).

The assets of the richest 200 people in the world are greater than the combined income of the poorest 2.5 billion people in the world.

The causes of this inequity are many and varied.

One is the asymmetrical course of globalization, which is increasing the incomes of a relative few, while locking out many.

Another is the persistence of colonial-era trade patterns in which developing regions supply resources but do not produce value-added goods that generate higher incomes.

Another is gender discrimination. Of the 1.3 billion people living in extreme poverty today, more than two-thirds are girls and women.

Another is inadequate governance and lack of transparent, effective state and social institutions that attract investment to help break the cycle of poverty.

The impacts of the rich – poor gap are severe for the poor.

Some 30,000 children die each day of preventable diseases.

Some two billion people receive less than adequate nutrition, often because they cannot afford sufficient or suitable food.

More than one billion people lack access to safe water and more than 2.4 billion lack access to sanitation.

The impacts of the rich – poor gap are also severe for the environment.

Poverty often forces people to over-exploit resources and damage the environment. As the environment is degraded, economic conditions often worsen, creating a vicious cycle.

Higher incomes often support excessive consumption and waste that damage the environment.

Solutions to the rich – poor gap include empowering communities – with an emphasis on women and minorities – to control local resources and make sustainable decisions.

Another solution is to build capacity through education, health care, and access to credit and communication.

Supporting the development of responsive and accountable governance, and conditions supportive of democracy – literacy, social health, and a free press can also help.

Promoting equitable trade - with an emphasis on helping developing countries improve standards of living through sustainable development – and relieving the debt burden of the world’s least developed nations.

Population

Population growth drives or multiplies many of the critical problems we face today.

In fact, without the multiplier of population, it could be argued that many of the problems we face would not qualify as "global."

Between 1900 and 1999, world population quadrupled. Just between 1960 and 1999 it more than doubled, from three billion to over six billion.

We are currently growing by more than 80 million people every year

Larger populations use more energy and resources, occupy more land, and create more pollution. If per person consumption grows along with population, all those impacts are multiplied.

As population and consumption increase, there are fewer resources available per person.

At some point, there are not enough resources to go around, and scarcity occurs.

Resource scarcity is the root of many serious problems.

If there are not enough resources to adequately support the population, poverty may result.

Greater environmental degradation can also occur, as people are forced to over-exploit the resource base in order to meet their basic survival needs.

Scarcity may lead to discrimination, because when resources are scarce, someone gets less. Girls, women, ethnic or religious minorities, the poor and the elderly are most often victims of this.

Scarcity may lead to migration as people move around in search of more resources.

And scarcity may lead to conflict as people (or nations) fight to obtain resources

There are just, humane ways to stabilize population, and those same solutions can improve quality of life, help protect the environment, and enhance global security.

One is universal access to reproductive and community health services to enable people choose safely the number and spacing of their children, and reasonably expect them to live healthy lives.

Another is universal access to education, with a special emphasis on educating girls.

Alleviating poverty through sustainable development is essential, so people do not “need” numerous children for support.

Stabilizing population growth can be solved with our current level of knowledge and technology.

The solutions are interconnected, so working on environmental, social, economic, and security issues will also help stabilize population.

And stabilizing population can help solve those environmental, social, economic, and security issues

Health

Health is absolutely essential for social and economic development.

Despite decades of progress, however, population growth, globalization, and inappropriate development have made health more tenuous than ever for many of the Earth’s people.

Inadequate development has resulted in poverty and insufficient health services in much of the world, while over-consumption by industrialized nations has created severe environmental health impacts.

And, while much of the developing world lacks adequate health care, the spiraling costs of health care technologies in industrialized nations may force the “rationing” of health services in those countries

Health is closely linked to every other global issue. For example –

Population growth drives people into previously uninhabited areas where they encounter new pathogens, while greater numbers of people living and moving in the world rapidly transmit disease.

Poverty is a major contributor to ill health. Poor people – especially women and children – often cannot afford adequate nutrition, clean water, or access to medical attention. Ill health, in turn, traps people in or condemns them to poverty.

Ill health is a security threat. Health problems hold the potential to reduce economic output to the point that entire regions may be destabilized, as is the case of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Significant health threats include the emergence of new diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, and Hepatitis C, and the reemergence of familiar diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis in more virulent forms.

Expanding multi-drug resistance in viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi now threaten to reverse many of the advances of the past 50 years.

Food-borne diseases are spreading as globalization patterns change food processing and distribution, while water-borne diseases kills millions and new strains are resistant to routine disinfectant methods.

Perhaps most frightening is the fact that many pathogens can be “weaponized” and used for military or terrorist operations.

Reversing these trends begins with development and expansion of community-based primary health care, especially child and maternal care, vaccinations, and early diagnosis and containment of communicable diseases.

Poverty alleviation is a high leverage intervention, so people are not made more vulnerable to illness by lack of nutrition, clean water, sanitation, or affordable treatment.

Education – both to help alleviate poverty and to expand literacy so that people can learn about and understand risks and benefits of health-related behavior – is another powerful intervention.

And mitigation of environmental and social conditions – whether through organic agriculture, safer workplaces, clean energy sources for cooking and heating, or diet and exercise – could save millions of lives annually

Conflict

Peace – or at least the absence of overt conflict – is essential to achieving social health, economic development, and environmental protection and restoration.

Despite the end of the Cold War, there are some 30 "high-intensity" wars raging around the planet – virtually all between factions within states – and dozens of more localized conflicts.

These conflicts cause millions of casualties, as well as social and economic disruptions that threaten food supplies, health, local environments and political stability in many regions.

There are many causes of conflict, but resource scarcity – caused or worsened by population growth, over consumption, environmental destruction, and inequitable distribution – is a common flashpoint.

Most conflicts are over access to farmland, water, fishing grounds, timber resources, or control of valuable commodities such as diamonds, coffee or narcotics.

Combatant groups – whether government, opposition, or communal entities – are often members of a particular class, ethnic group, or religion struggling for access to natural resources, social services, or political power

The economic, environmental, and human price of this conflict is extremely high.

World military spending is nearly $800 billion annually – more than 25 times the cost of providing primary education, basic health care, nutrition, clean water, and sanitation worldwide.

Preparing for, financing, and fighting wars has destabilized local and regional economies, devastated ecosystems and habitats, and polluted water and soil with radioactive and other toxic materials

More than five million civilians have died in conflicts during the past decade, and many times that number have been driven from their homes.

Halting this deepening cycle of conflict and creating conditions for peace and stability depends upon several strategies.

One is international intervention to halt or at least limit the spread of armed conflict at an early stage to minimize casualties and diminish economic, social, and environmental damage.

Another is to expose and curtail illicit transfers of weapons, money, and natural resources used to support and extend conflicts.

Most important in the long-term is to promote social health, human rights, economic reform and sustainable development, and effective, democratic governance under which all groups are fairly represented and resources are more equitably distributed.

Energy

After food and water, energy is our most basic need.

Modern economies and cultures are built almost entirely around energy production and consumption.

The great concern about energy is not, as many have feared in the past, diminishing supplies. It is that our current energy models are unsustainable because of environmental, economic, geopolitical, and equity issues.

Our current energy models rely primarily on the following components:

Hydrocarbon fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) provide nearly 80 percent of world energy, but cause smog and acid rain, and may be linked to global warming.

Traditional biomass fuels (solid wood) provide almost 10 percent of world energy but contribute to deforestation, desertification, and air pollution.

Nuclear generation provides just over 6 percent of world energy, but generates toxic waste requires long-term safe disposal.

Existing energy systems are neither reliable nor affordable for many of the world’s people, of whom some two billion lack even electricity.

Without access to reliable, affordable energy models, it is impossible for nations to generate sufficient economic growth to overcome poverty and improve social health.

Redesigning world energy systems could not only minimize environmental impacts, but also provide tremendous economic opportunities in industrialized and developing regions.

One obvious leverage point would be more efficient use of existing energy (about two-thirds of which is currently wasted worldwide) and more equitable distribution.

Another is shifting to clean, renewable energy sources, including wind, solar, geothermal, and hydrogen.

And another is transferring sustainable energy technologies to developing regions to allow them to "leapfrog" beyond the energy models used by industrialized regions.

Environment

As we begin a new millennium, human impacts on the environment are becoming both more apparent and more widespread.

Almost 40 percent of the earth's land surface has been converted to cropland or permanent pasture and half the planet's tropical forests have been destroyed or degraded.

The planet's protective ozone layer has been badly damaged, while record-high carbon emissions cause smog and acid rain, and contribute to global warming and climate change.

An estimated three unique plant, animal or other species go extinct every hour.

All of these environmental impacts result from the needs and desires of our growing population and the models of production and consumption we use to try to meet those needs and desires.

Much of the damage to the environment is a result of over-consumption of resources and generation of wastes by wealthy nations and individuals.

Some of the damage is a result of scarcity and poverty that force poor nations and individuals to make environmentally unsound decisions to survive.

All of these impacts pose a threat to human health, security, and livelihoods

We could protect the environment by creating conditions that allow all people to make environmentally appropriate decisions – about family size, livelihood, and consumption patterns.

This means addressing the economic and social inequalities that often force people to have large families and to damage the environment just to survive.

It also means eliminating economic and social policies that promote over-consumption and unsustainable production models

One important way to protect and restore the environment is to shift taxes onto things we don't want – pollution, resource depletion and excess consumption – and away from things we do want, such as income and investment.

Another is to develop and implement renewable, non-polluting energy systems, including solar and hydrogen fuel technologies.

Another is to develop and implement efficient production processes and technologies that reuse and recycle virtually all materials.

These efforts would enhance the health of families, communities and ecosystems, and create a strong, sustainable economy in the process.

Дата добавления: 2015-10-24