Factors and processes element composition formation of living matter

To living matter (LM) V.I. Vernadskiy (1994) suggested to assign: 1) all living organisms, animal and plants including mankind; 2) that part of their environment matter – liquid (water), solid (food), gaseous that undoubtedly necessary for life; 3) all excretions of organisms outside the organism (sweat, urine, etc.); 4) all their dead and dying parts (leaves etc.); 5) all corps of organisms and their remeins.

These facts predetermine, as was noticed by V.I. Vernadskiy very sharp changes in chemical composition of LM conditioned by the changes in biochemical functions of LM (Table 3.1.1).

First of all, it is a function of element dissipation and function of producing new, unknown before elements, e.g., transuranium and their isotopes, for instance, ¹³⁷Cs, ⁹⁰Sr, ¹²⁹I etc. (Rikhvanov et al, 2006).

V.I. Vernadskiy paid attention to the fact that almost all basic biogeochemical functions of LM in biosphere can be performed by the simplest monocellular organisms, excluding the two latter functions concerned with human activity. It is human activity that mostly leads to enormous changes in biosphere in general, which have been described above.

Heterogeneity of LM composition is conditioned by differentiating the capacity of accumulating and redistribution of elements at different organization structure levels: sub-cellular (organelles), cellular, organism, species etc., as well as dependence on peculiarities of organism physiological reactions and internal factors of its development.

Table 3.1.1.

Basic biogeochemical functions of living matter (according to V.I. Vernadskiy with changes according to L.P. Rikhvanov et al, 2006)

	Gas function (N2^–O2 – CO2 – CH4 – H2 – NH3 – H2S)	All organisms
1.1	Oxygen function Free oxygen formation	Chlorophyll organisms
	Oxidizing function	Bacteria, mostly autotrophic
	Reduction function	Bacteria
	Concentration function	All organisms
4.1	Calcium function	Algae, bacteria, moss and other organisms
	Organic compound disruption function	Bacteria, грибы
	Reduction decomposition function	Bacteria
	Metabolism and breathing function	All organisms
	Function of element dissipation	Humans
	Function of producing new elements and their isotopes	Humans

Due to introduction of mankind into LM composition, to the main biogeochemical functions differentiated by V.I. Vernadskiy, one should add some more geochemical functions conditioned by human activity (technogenesis according to А.Ye. Fersman, 1937).

Thus, according to Ye. А. Boychenko in different cell organelles the concentration of definite elements takes place that 10-1000 times different in comparison with a whole cell. For example, Ti is 100 times more in neutral lipids than in a cell etc.

G.N. Sayenko (1992) showed that concentration of Br in marine plants in one and the same site of the sea ranges from 203 to 1004 мg/kg of dry substance.

Accordong to А.А. Kist (1987) microorganisms, bacteria, algae accumulate microelements more efficiently due to closer connections with the environment that is typical for the less evolutionary developed organisms. He stated that it is also typical for such species to concentrate elements more intensively at their lower concentration in the environment. This property of living organisms is successfully used in practice of geologic, ecologic research, thoroughly studied in medicine. Thus, V.Т. Volkov et al. (2004) put forward a number of hypothesis about development of human pathological states as a result of selective accumulation of definite elements (iron, gold etc.) by nanobacteria living in human organism for building their shells that results in formation of mineral deposits and calculus in different parts of the body. The authors (L.P. Rikhvanov et al. (2006)) noticed the regularities in increasing amount of nanobacteria in water with high concentration of iron on the territory of Tomsk region, Tomsk Oblast. The capability of definite cellular structures to uptake elements remains their property as a part of more complex systems. Modern research methods of matter composition (electron microscopy etc.) allow for detection of plenty of chemical elements in the form of cотдельных minals, minerals, and nanominerals in minute organism structures. Thus, Professor Enrico Sabioni (Italy) demonstrated repeatedly the occurrence of one or another nanominerals in the cells of living organisms, including uranium, carbonates etc. when studying «the Balkan syndrome» (as an effect of using Uranium-238 warhead in the Yugoslavian war (report at the meetings in Athens, Greece, 2005 and in Vilnius, Lithuania, 2006).

The example of such mineral formation in bone tissue on fibrous protein (collagen) is the formation of hydroxylapatite which is, on the one hand, an accumulator of phosphorous, but on the other hand, it performs a supporting function together with collagen in bone tissue. Such minerals, forming with participation of LM, called biolyte by Ya.V. Samoylov (1929) are plenty enough. They include: calcite, aragonite, a cryptocrystalline variety of silicon oxide (opal) etc.

In this case the attention is paid to evolutionary changes in prevailing mineral composition in skeleton tissue. For example, silicon skeletons with SiO₂ and H₂O occur early in the evolutionary row of organisms, remaining in plants and some organisms (Foraminifera etc.) nowadays. Carbonate (Ca, Mg) skeletons developed early as well, but then they were replaced by Са-Р (calcium phosphate + chitin) and Са phosphate+protein (Vinogradov, 1963).

Of particular interest is a recently developed idea of academician N.P. Yushkin on biomineral interactions. Using «fibrocherite» model of a simplest living cell, similar to protein in chemical composition, he suggested the concept of hydrocarbon crystallization of life (Yushkin, 2002).

In N.A. Agadzhanyan’s work (1975) it is stated that in human organism there are a lot of different physiological functions, for which day-and-night rhythm is typical. During twenty four hours in tissues of the human body acid-base balance is changing, as a result the organism’s internal medium is mostly in acid phase in the period from 3 to 15 o’clock, but from 15 to 3 – in base phase. This leads to changes in element composition of different organs and tissues observed by L.I. Zhuk by the example of day-and-night changes of blood chemical composition (Zhuk, 1988). The shifts of acid-base balance can be one of the reasons for formation of biolytes in the structure of living organisms. There is also a seasonal rhythmicity – rhythm of metabolism, blood circulation, neuroendocrinal system etc. For instance, according to V.Ye. Zaychik’s and co-authors’ (1990) data the seasonal cycle in calcium saturation of human bones is observed, it is expressed in the loss of the element in winter-spring period with subsequent compensation in summer-autumn one, with difference in content amounting 18,5 %.

The biogeochemical investigations have shown that different part of plants accumulate selectively one or another type of microelements, that is supported by our study of berries: bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), cranberry (Oxycoccus palustris)) and that of medical plants: meal monger (Filipendula ulmaria) (Fig. 3.1.1 C). In the Figure it is well seen that the root part of meal monger accumulates significantly higher concentrations of a number of elements as compared to the top part. This property for the plants in general is widely illustrated both in literature of the last century (Grabovskaya, 1963 and others) and in modern sources (Kabata – Pendias, 2008; others). In the given case it is of great practical significance, as this means the part of medical plant possessing healthcare effect on human organism.

By the example of small fruits (Fig.3.1.1. А, B) it is well seen that the plants’ top parts have pronounced differences, they deal with, as a rule, definite elements. E.g., in the bilberry stems (Vaccinium myrtillus) barium and gold are mostly accumulated, whereas for leaves somewhat higher concentrations of iron and chromium are typical. It is explained by, first of all, the functions of the elements in plant organism: iron and chromium form the pigments, barium is present in strengthening tissues. It is typical for berries to accumulate cesium that can be conditioned not only by the physiological indicators but also characterize the changes in environmental quality. It is shown in Figure 3.1.1. (А) comparing the berries of bilberry and cranberry. Cesium concentrates in approximately the same amount in cranberry growing in the given territory. The specific accumulation of rubidium and iron in bilberry, but that of gold in cranberry is a species characteristic.

Changes in element composition of living organisms occur depending on the stage of physiological development and LM conditions that depend on the period of day, year season, degree of light, age, and a number of other parameters.

(А)

(B)

(C)

Fig.3.1.1.Selective accumulation of the chemical elements in different species (А) and parts of berries (B) and medical (C) plants.

When studying the element composition of medical plant Atragene speciosa Weinm., gathered in 1998, we revealed that in the period of bud-formation they accumulate mostly samarium, lanthanum, europium, thorium, antimony, chromium, rubidium, scandium, iron, sodium; in blooming – beginning of fructification period - gold, zinc, barium, cerium, and ciborium (Shilova et al,2002). It is likely to be connected with selectiveness in absorption of the elements by the given plant species in different periods of vegetation depending on biochemical processes in analyzed organs (Fig. 3.1.2).

Fig. 3.1.2. The standardized curve element accumulation in the top part of Atragene speciosa Weinm. Depending on the vegetation phase. The abscissa direction - elements. The ordinate direction – the content of elements in ash (мg/kg). Conventional designation: 1 – bud-formation period; 2 – blooming period – beginning of fructification.

Our research has shown that depending on the stage of potato vegetation development the level of microelements accumulation changes sufficiently as well (Table 3.1.2).

The most dramatic example of element concentration change depending on the age of biological species found in the literature is potassium behavior in human organism that is detected using the whole body counter (WBC) in terms of isotope K⁴⁰ in the whole body (Fig.3.1.3). The entire studied cohort amounted 2960 people at the age from 1 to 79 years. It was stated that by 10-12 years in females, and by 18-20 years in males the maximum amount of the element is accumulated, but then its concentration is gradually decreasing with age 1,5 – 2 times by 60-70 years in both sexes (“Human being. Medical-Biological Data”, 1977).

With age the content of numerous microelements in tissues of human organism is significantly changing. For example, the content of Cd in kidneys and molybdenum in liver is increasing by the old age. The maximum concentration of Zn is observed within the period of sexual maturation, then it decreases, and in the old age it comes to the minimum. The content of other microelements, e.g., V and Cr is also decreasing with age («General…», 2000; Yershov Yu.А., 2003).

Table 3.1.2.

The changes in content of element bulk form in potato tops and tubers in the South part of Tomsk Oblast (Experimental Production Farm “Sidorenko”) at different stages of vegetation

Elements, mg/kg of wet weight	Top	Potato
1^stcrop	2^ndcrop	1^stcrop	2^ndcrop
NO3
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Fe
Zn
Co	< 1	< 1	< 1	< 1
Mo	< 1	< 1	< 1	< 1
Cu	6,9		3,6	3,5
Cr	2,3	2,5	1,3	1,0
Ba			2,3	2,4
Sr			3,6	2,5
Si
Al
Pb	1,6	7,3	1,4	3,4
Mn

Note: 1^st crop – blooming period, 2^nd crop – mass cropping period

In addition, within the period of intensive growth and development of organism there is a significant increase in microelement content that gradually slows down or ceases by 17-20 years. In literature there are the data supporting the fact that content of copper, cobalt, nickel in human blood decreases by 50-60 years in comparison with that of the microelements at 20-25 years (Avtsyn et al, 1991).

Our studies have shown that the varying of elements in children’s hair of both sex tales place (Baranovskaya e.a., 2009), they live in Zyryanskoye settlement of Tomsk Oblast from their birth (Fig. 3.1.4). The concentration of sodium, brome, and antimony in boys’ hair composition is significantly (according to Student’s criterion) higher in comparison with that of girls. The difference in content of other elements is insignificant.

Fig. 3.1.3.Dependence of potassium content in human organism on the age (from «Human being…», 1977).

Fig. 3.1.4. Element composition of children’s hair (in мg/kg) of different sex (by the example of Zyryanskoye settlement, Tomsk Oblast).

At present the question on the role of chemical elements in the process of metabolism in LM at different levels of its organization (organelle, cell, tissue etc.) is rather intensively studied, plenty information has been accumulated on this problem that allows for assumption of causative-consecutive relations between the level of element accumulation and development of some pathology (Inorganic biochemistry, 1977; Rish, 2003; Avtsyn et al, 1991; Kovalskiy, 1974; Kukushkin, 1998; Lindh, 2005; Abdurakhmanov, 2004 others).

In the works of А.P. Avtsyn (1991), G.А. Babenko (1971), А.О. Voynar (1960), М.G. Kolomiytseva (1970), L.R. Nozdryukhina (1080, 1990), А.А. Kist (1987), Ya.V. Peive (1960), V.Ya. Shustov (1967) and others the changes in human tissues and organs at development of one or another pathology are shown.

It should be noted that ceasing the metabolism and breathing functions in LM (death) results in changes of its chemical composition. This fact was paid attention by V.I. Vernadskiy, who with reference to N.D. Zelinskiy’s experiments showed that the difference in nitrogen in living and dead bees amounts more than 1 % (Vernadskiy, 1960).

Particularly distinctive change in chemical composition of living cell is after its death. It is well known at present that concentration of K in the living cell is much more than that of Na (approximately 15 times), whereas in intercellular fluid Na is more than K about 25 times. Just after cell death their concentrations become equal.

At the moment one could state with high degree of certainty that a body of any living organism on the Earth, whether it is plant or animal, consists of rather definite set of chemical elements strictly regulated by genes and descendable from generation to generation in the same relationships. The question is whether this inheritance is absolutely stable over the generations or it is changing in the process of geochemical evolution of the Earth’s surface with the rate inaccessible for human perception.

The literature data analysis on element composition of different organisms’ groups has shown that changes take place in the form of data clarification that is likely to be connected with, first of all, development of the analytical methods.

The results presented in Table 3.1.3. demonstrate that in spite of difference in research methods the human organism remains relative composition stability of the main chemical elements.

V.I. Vernadskiy (1939) noted that quantitative biogeochemical properties are specific characteristics of organisms, their races and generations; absorbing the elements selectively and reflecting the physical-chemical properties of the environment in their form and composition, organisms, however, do not change their average composition. But that was done with some reserve that the accumulation of dispersed elements could be unspecific and defined the content level in the environment (Vernadskiy, 1939).

The analysis of available results and analyses allows for stating the fact that for highly organized systems of living organisms it is likely to be typical evolutionarily increasing independence of internal medium composition on that of environment («Human being…», 1977; Emsly, 1993; Yershov, 2003; Yermakov, 2005, 2008; Alexeenko, 2000, 2006; Bowen, 1979; Lindh, 2005; Kist, 1987; Kabata – Pendias, 2007; others.).

Table 3.1.3.

Contemporary estimation of main and accompanying structure-forming (wt. %) and trace elements (мg/kg) in human body (according to (Ulf Lindh, 2005) with changes)

№	Element	Content	№	Element	Content
	oxygen (O)	65,0 (65,04)		zinc (Zn)	0,0033 (0,00n)
	carbon (C)	18,0 (18,25)		bromine (Br)	0,00029 (0,000n)
	hydrogen (H)	10,0 (10,05)		copper (Cu)	0,0001 (0,000n)
	nitrogen (N)	3,0 (2,65)		arsenic (As)	0,26 (0,n)
	phosphorous (P)	1 (0,8)		cobalt (Co)	0,021
	sulfur (S)	0,26 (0,21)		chromium (Cr)	0,094
	calcium (Ca)	1,4 (1,4)		iodine (I)	0,19 (0,0n)
	magnesium (Mg)	0,5 (0,04)		lithium (Li)	0,009
	potassium (K)	0,34 (0,27)		molybdenum (Mo)	0,08
	sodium (Na)	0,14 (0,26)		nickel (Ni)	0,14
	chlorine (Cl)	0,14 (0,25)		selenium (Se)	0,11
	silicon (Si)	0,026 (0,00n)		tin (Sn)	0,24
	iron (Fe)	0,006 (0,02)		vanadium (V)	0,11

Note: in brackets the data on human body composition introduced by V.I. Vernadskiy in 1922 with reference to Folkman.

Living organisms seem to develop the efficient behavior to compensate the excessive intake of chemical elements (Fig.3.1.5). The composition stability is observed at comparison of samples made in significantly large territories. Analysis of local changes has showed that there is absorption of sufficient amount of elements induced by natural-technogenic factors developed in definite territories. It should be noted that in composition of LM both global and regional and local peculiarities are developing clearly enough that reflects the specificity of geochemical backgrounds including abnormally high ones. Issyk-Kul uranium, Tuva cobalt, Southern Asia salted semidesert provinces etc. may serve as examples. (Kovalskiy, 1974, Yermakov, 2009 others).

Today mapping is made for plenty of region that are iodine and iodine-free, selenium and selenium-free, arsenic and without it provinces, where LM including human, feel uncomfortable and where the dependence of organism reaction on concentration and relationship of macro- and microelements in the environment is profoundly observed. The geographic information about them has become widely available thanks to H.J.M Bowen’s publication (1966) with reference to P.E. Smith (1962), which is referred to nearly in all modern articles discussing the problem of interconnection of environmental chemical composition and LM reactions.

Fig. 3.1.5. Changes in content of chemical elements in living organisms’ composition as compared to their content in soil, marine water and the Earth’s crust (from Yershoc, 2003 with reference to А.P. Vinogradov).

The peculiarities of environment chemical composition (landscape-climatic, substrate composition, presence of sources of abnormally high chemical concentrations etc.) are the main factors defining the general chemical composition of LM. This fact has been paid attention by all researchers without exception dealing with geochemistry of LM. V.I. Vernadskiy (1922) focused on it particular attention, pointing out that chemical element composition is closely connected with chemical composition of the earth’s crust. In his articles he gave convincing examples and underlined that one cannot study the biological problems by studying only one separate organism as it is tightly connected with the Earth’s crust and it cannot exist without it.

As early as at the beginning of the XX century V.I. Vernadskiy underlined that “…appearance of a cultural human being has started to change the chemical image of our planet” (Vernadskiy 1960³, p. 158), by doing so predicting those geochemical transformations in biosphere that took place within the previous century.

Those changes are reflected quantitatively in changes of element composition of the planet living matter. Moreover, they are concerned with it isotope. LM, as was stated by V.I.Vernadskiy (1960²), consists of pure isotopes and it is capable of decompose isotope mixtures and select some of them. He pointed out that organism is related to heavy water (Н₂О, containing deuterium) differently than ordinary water, i.e. organism differentiates two types of hydrogen, hence, one can expect the existence of general LM capacity to treat isotopes of one and the same element differently существование.

The isotope composition of LM, its change and possible physiological significance is spoken about by the physicians (Kaznacheev et al, 2002) and geochemists (Crouse, 1990 others). Thus, V.P. Kaznacheev showed in his works repeatedly that the relationship of ¹²С and ¹³С in human cells during 8-12 years of his life in the north part of the country is changing towards ¹²С, after this the organism starts to get older sharply (Kaznacheev et al, 2002). A striking reaction of isotope composition change to the change of residence is demonstrated by human organism (Crouse, 1990).

Hence, the formation of element composition of living matter is influenced by the factors and processes if internal and external origin. Indifferent periods and for different sites they are either significant for living organisms’ functioning or their changes are less remarkable and is reflected in the form of negligible fluctuations in the range of homeostatic standards. Anyhow, when studying element composition of living matter, beginning from sampling and finishing with conclusions on practical application of the results obtained, it is necessary to bear in mind the causes if its changes.

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