History of knowledge development about biosphere chemical composition and scale of its transformations

NATIONAL RESEARCH TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

______________________________________________________________

N.V. Baranovskaya, I.A. Matveenko

GEOCHEMISTRY of living organisms

It is recommended for publishing as a study aid
by the Editorial Board of Tomsk Polytechnic University

Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House

UDC 574.4 (075.8)

BBC 26.30я73

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Baranovskaya N.V.

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Соursebook of geochemistry of living organisms / N.V. Baranovskaya, I.А. Маtveenko – Томsk: Presented Томского политехнического университета, 2011. – 111 с.

Geochemistry of living organisms as an integrated science studying the elemental composition of the living matter and its role in migration, transformation, accumulation of chemical elements and their compounds in the biosphere, has agane become the leading scientific branch highlighting the man – made evolution of the planet and the pathway of interaction between the man and environment. This studbook presented some questions about modern biogeochemical situation in global and region aspects.

The tutorial is intended for students and masters of ecological specialities, but could be quite useful for lectures, students and experts who call themselves “environmentalits” and are interested in speaking on the problems of geochemistry of living organisms, ecology, environment..

UDC 574.4 (075.8)

BBC 26.30я73

B24

Science Editor Doctor
Professor, d.g.-m.s. L.P. Rikhvanov

Head of environment Department of Tomsk region, d.t.s., PhD (biology science)

А.М. Аdam

© STE HPT TPU, 2011

© Baranovskaya N.V. 2011

© Design. Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House, 2011

СОNTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1. HISTORY OF KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT ABOUT BIOSPHERE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND SCALE OF ITS TRANSFORMATIONS

2. KEY APPROACHERS TO CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

3.FACTORS AND PROCESSES ELEMENT COMPOSITION FORMATION OF LIVING MATTER

4. REGIONAL ASPECTS OF BIOGEOCHEMISTRY

4.1. Conditions of the Natural Environment Components According to Ecological-Geochemical Monitoring and Population Health Data (Tomsk Region)

4.2. Element composition of human organs and tissues

4.3. Biogeochemistry of uranium and thorium

4.4. Rare earth element in human organs and tissues

4.5. Element content in children hair samples

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

At the boundary of the third millennium medical-biological sciences have achieved extraordinarily high level of technology development and research methods of organism functioning at its different levels and the role of chemical elements in these processes. Biogeochemistry as an integrated science dealing with element composition of living matter and its role in migration, transformation and concentration of elements and their compounds in biosphere, first developed by V.I. Vernadskiy and his followers in the 30’s of the last century, is a key scientific trend (Yermakov, 2003). This science is one of the basic disciplines in higher education along with ecology, geography, geology, biology, chemistry, medicine and other sciences (Bashkin, 2004). The intensive technogenic environmental transformation poses a problem of studying the regularities in accumulation and distribution of chemical elements in living matter at it different organization levels and in connection with its surrounding its geospheric shells based on generalization of available data and their addition with elements that have been poorly studied.On the practical levelthe results of solution have to be laid as a basis for medical-environmental monitoring defined at present as an important priority of national safety and sustainable development of Russia (Agadzhanyan et al, 2006). Evaluation of element composition evolution and its habitat is one of the basic tasks of biogeochemistry. Its solution is a fundamental for biogeochemistry development incorporating a plenty of various sciences. This manual is a generalization of scientific results of recent years and intended for the students and master-students as well as everybody who are interested in study of biogeochemical parameter changes of contemporary biosphere, element migration and questions of changes in geochemical parameters of geospheric shells with human health state on global and regional scale.

HISTORY OF KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT ABOUT BIOSPHERE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND SCALE OF ITS TRANSFORMATIONS

History of concept development about biosphere geochemistry is closely connected with the name of Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadskiy who created the theory of biosphere and first states the problem of special studying the living matter playing a crucial role in redistribution of chemical elements in various environments with which it contacts. The ideas of studying living organisms’ activity from geologic point of view appeared in V.I. Vernadskiy’s mind in his student’s years, when he took part in the field expeditions of his teacher – soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev. Then they were developed in the years of his life in Ukraine (1916 - 1920) and in France (1922 - 1926). Beginning from 1921 Vladimir Ivanovich arranged the systematic research in biogeochemistry (Vernadskiy, 1921; 1922; 1926; 1930; 1939 and others). The works dealing with this question were continued by his disciples А.P. Vinogradov, V.V. Kovalskiy and others. By that time, according to А.P. Vinogradov’s achieve in the laboratory of BIOGEL GEOHI RAS, the investigations of element content in living organisms started to develop in some countries. Thus, as soon as the beginning of the 20-th century Italian and German scientists revealed the relative content amount of some rare earth elements (according to BIOGEL achieve: Schiaparelli, 1880; Yunk, 1926), bromine (according to BIOGEL achieve: Paderi, 1898, Yustus, 1907) and others. However, they were of not systematical nature. Fundamental research of living organisms’ role in concentration of chemical elements were presented in V.I. Vernadskiy’s book «Biosphere» (Vernadskiy, 1926), one of the most famous publications of the great Russian scientist translated into almost all languages of the world.

In his logical theory about biosphere as an inhabited geospheric shell V.I. Vernadskiy paid great attention to the geochemical processes with participation of living matter (LM). «Living matter is an absolutely special chemical sphere of the Earth’s crust... In living matter, in its each cell … there is a whirlwind of chemical elements», wrote V.I. Vernadskiy (1994, p. 168).

His ideas were developed in А.P. Vinogradov’s research (1932; 1935, 1938 and others). Thus, his investigation of living matter geochemistry is of fundamental importance and still remains topical for content analysis of definite element spectrum (Vinogradov, 1932). In his monograph «Chemical element composition of marine organisms» a number of ideas about the regularities of biogeochemistry as a science were first formulated and they are still rather timely (Vinogradov, 1935). This research was carried out in the first in the world the Biogeochemical laboratory established in 1928 on the basis of small Department of living matter in Committee of Research in Natural Production Force of Russia established by V.I. Vernadskiy in 1926, that still functions successfully (head of the laboratory – Prof., Doctor of Biol. Science, Yermakov V.V.). Just from that time the history of the first in the world systematic, fundamental studies of living matter has started. Theoretical bases developed in the Biogeochemical laboratory in future crystallized in powerful trends and schools. For instance, the uranium research was performed in the lab, there were questions of isotope geochemistry under study, microbiological investigations were performed, and the problems of analytical research methods for low element concentrations were solved as well as a number of other studies. The former question was paid much attention by all scientists, as the content of high element concentration in living matter is characterized by small values. It was this question with which the significant problems of chemical element composition are connected. Developing analytical methods we are advancing in awareness of regularities in element composition formation of all living matter. V.I. Vernadskiy wrote in his letter: «Those new chemical disciplines ultimately developed in the 20-th century, such as geochemistry and biogeochemistry are based on analytical chemistry – the scientific sphere of high practical and theoretical significance» (V.I. Vernadskiy, по Vinogradovа, 2007, P.85). It was due to the fact that the laboratory «BIOGEL» was a competent center of living matter chemistry and at that time it became possible to develop knowledge in the sphere of living matter geochemistry and even at that period to reveal some regularities in formation of element composition and species evolution. In the 1930’s А.P. Vinogradov put forward the idea of biogeochemical provinces (Vinogradov, 1938), that allowed for further practical solutions in problems of goiter endemia, Kashin-Bek disease and a number of other animal and human pathologies prevention.

Simultaneously the study in element accumulation in animal and human tissues was actively carried out aboard, namely by German and other scientists (Damiens, 1921; Burkser e.а., 1931; Hoffman, 1942; Warren e.a., 1949; and others).

Since the end of the 30’s in the research of microelement physiological role in the life of a man had been engaged V.V. Kovalskiy, who following V.I. Vernadskiy and А.P. Vinogradov became a director of the Biogeochemical laboratory (since 1954) (Vinogradov, 2007). It was this laboratory where the ideas of living organisms’ homeostasis with the environmental chemical composition appeared and developed (Kovalskiy, 1974; et al) and where the biogeochemical map of the Soviet Union was constructed. In this map the biogeochemical provinces with excess and lack of elements were shown. On the basis of the map in terms of the known data one could predict these or those diseases.

Since 1945 the Biogeochemical lab under the supervision of А.P. Vinogradov has held the meeting at which different problems of living matter microelements were discussed. In 1950 on the basis of GEOHI named after V.I. Vernadskiy of the USSR AS and the International Dairy Research Institute under the guidance of the Chemical and Biological Departments of the USSR AS and All-Union Agricultural Academy of Science named after V.I. Lenin held the first All-Union Microelement Conference.

By the 50’s of the last century the main trends in microelement research and their role in different fields of biology and medicine had outlined. The results of these works are of fundamental character and basic for modern performance of functional-diagnostic studies of human and animals (Kovalskiy, 1982; 2009). Simultaneously the laboratory has developed the biogeochemical method of ore field exploration (D.P. Malyuga, 1964; Nesvetailova, 1970; and others), studied chemical composition of fossil organic matter of ancient organisms (S.М. Manskaya, 1964; Т.V. Drozdova, 1964, and others) and a number of other trends (Kovalskiy, 2006).

Ya.V. Peive, V.V. Kovalskiy, P.А. Vlasyuk, F.Ya. Berenshtein’s scientific schools contributed to the wide application of microelements in crop production, zooculture, and veterinary medicine as well as medicine. The 50-60’s of the 20-th century became the period of “golden age” in research of element content in living matter composition. There were conferences, meetings on these topics in different cities and countries (Baku, 1958; Riga, 1959; Kiev, 1965; Ulan-Ude, December,1960; Krasnoyarsk, November-December,1964; Omsk, July, 1969; and other). Particularly numerous were studies in composition of different plant species, element migration from soil to plants, the role of chemical elements in functions of living organism, peculiarities of element concentration in different organs and tissues (standard and pathology) (Vinogradov, 1954, 1957; Brieger e.a., 1959; Schreder, Balassa, 1961; Underwood, 1962; Warren, 1959; Warren e.a., 1967; Babenko, 1971; others).

Under the supervision of V.V. Kovalskiy in the Biogeochemical laboratory the large-scale works on determination of the element role in living organism were arranged, the new biogeochemical trends – geochemical ecology and the theory of biogeochemical biosphere zoning were developed. As early as in the 80’s these factors predetermined the development of the theory of human microelementosis that in 1983 was generalized and classified (Avtsyn et al, 1983, 1991). The theory of biogeochemical provinces and numerous scientific works in the field of living organism chemical composition made possible the development of preventive measures to prevent population diseases.

Similar works have been performed abroard (Italy, January, 1993; Greece, October, 1997; France, May, 1999; Sweden, September, 2000; Germany, Arbeitstagung, 1996 – 2002; and others). In recent years they were systematically performed by Prof. M. Anke («Mengen …», 1999, 2000, 2001) in Germany, Sophie and Serge Ermidot-Polet in Greece (2005, 2007, 2009), Prof. М.S. Panin in Kazakhstan (Semipalatinsk city, 2002 – 2009).

Today the information on living matter composition is available in all geochemical reference books and encyclopedias. The most complete original collections of these data are the generalizations of H.J.M. Bowen (1966), Боуэн, Гиббонс (1968), А.П. Vinogradov (1932, 1935), V.V. Kovalskiy (1974), В.В. Yermakov (2009), А.А. Kist (1987), А. Kabata-Pendias and H. Pendias (1989, 2007), V.B. Il’in (1985, 1991), V.V. Ivanov (1997), S.М. Tkalich (1959), G.N. Saenko (1992), N.F. and М.А. Glazovskiy (1982, 1988) as well as А.P. Avtsyn (1991), D.P. Malyuga (1963), J.A.C. Fortesque (1985), J. Emslie (1993) and a number of other researches including in definite types, organs, and tissues (blood, hair etc.) (Iyengar et al. (1978); Ryabukin (1978), Bucku, Parr (1982), Bowen (1979), Underwood (1977) and others), proceedings of Commissions («Human…», 1977; «Health risks…», 1988 and others).

Characteristic feature of modern investigations is their interdisciplinary approach to the themes of research in content, distribution, role of elements in living matter. There is a tendency of knowledge synthesis accumulated in different scientific fields. For example, at the seminar on environmental geoecology in Sweden (2000) the problem of new discipline development called «Medical geology» was actively discussed, the necessity of its establishment results from the huge role that the environment plays in chemical composition formation of living organisms and development of human pathology. In the course of this discipline the study of different territories with respect to geologic factor influence on the human health has been performed («Umveltmedizin…», 1999; «Essential…», 2005; Selinus et.al, 2010). Investigation of effects on living organisms is carried out at the interface of different scientific branches of environmental study. Therefore it is this place where mutual understanding among the specialists of various profiles and coordination of different conceptual bases is necessary (Emmanuel, 1982; Saet et al, 1990; Agadzhanyan, 2006 and others).

Importance of interdisciplinary approach to the problem of interaction in the living organism – environment system consists also in the fact that the degree of anthropogenic load is increasing with human society development. In this case the scale of adverse effect of toxic discharges and industrial wastes in the environment and their long-term accumulation has reached such critical values that one could speak about «chronic biogeoplanetary pathology» (Yu.P. Gichev, 2000, p.13). Along with biogeochemical endemias of natural origin the development of endemic diseases as a response to anormal environmental composition changed by human activity is also possible (Revich et al., 2003, 2004; Skalniy, 2000, 2004; Babenko, 2001 and others). The most complete interconnection between many diseases including those of endemic origin and human environment is described by the new scientific direction gaining widespread acceptance in recent time due to the works of V.L. Suslikov – geochemical ecology of diseases (Suslikov, 1999, 2000-2003).

There appear some elements in the environment absent before (Pu, Am and others) with increasing concentration and degree of element dispersion. In connection with study of human impact degree on the environment it was stated that peculiarities of living organism development and its chemical composition are strongly influenced by the processes of anthropogenic (technogenic) nature including electromagnetic rays (Plekhanov, 1996, and others), radioactive and chemical components (Krivolutskiy, 1971, 1984; Rikhvanov, 1997, 2009 and others.). Anthropogenic pollution according to V.S. Bezel’s definition (2006) is a man-induced unfavorable modification of natural environment having transformations of matter, energy fluxes and radiation background as consequences and developing in the form of biota changes. In the opinion of the book authors «Ecogeochemistry of Western Siberia» these transformations threaten not only by irreversible changes in main components of life-supporting systems and even their complete destruction but also development of new, unknown before, hostile to current biological communities («Ecogeochemistry…», 1996). In modern conditions characterized by significant anthropogenic pressure it is necessary to apply best efforts to preserve life on the Earth. For this purpose one should perform quantitative estimation of current geochemical background and its changes, to reveal the regularities in impact of environment components on biota, to detect the background indicators at which adaptation processes in organism and over-organism systems are possible, to state indicators of environmental ill-being for functions of living organisms including the man.

The scale of transformations in biosphere geochemical composition is huge. It is conditioned by numerous factors including growing intensity of fossil fuel extraction and rapid development of engineering progress. Intensive research in influence of natural and anthropogenic processes on global environmental changes is typical for almost all developed countries. It is carried out in the course of special international and national programs as well as numerous ecological programs («Global…», 2001 and others). The necessity of studying and understanding these processes to predict and minimize their negative impact for hmankind in general has become obvious. A number of authors studying global processes in biosphere point out that reaction of living systems are not always direct and predictable. Thus, research in periodical changes of global character (Dobretsov, Chumakov, 2001) permitted to state that biotic components of biosphere «…due to their homeostasis, behavior and evolutionary flexibility, resistivity of ecosystems developed by them, react to climate changes not so simply and predictably as inorganic elements» (p. 21). This property of living organism to react ambiguously on the basis of organism adaptation properties developed in the evolutionary process and adaptation to habitat conditions, manifests also at examining changes in element composition of definite organisms. Thus, Hopkin and Martin (Hopkin, Martin, 1983) showed that predaceous millipedes (Chilopoda), caught in the sites with elevated concentration of zinc, cadmium, lead, copper demonstrate high resistivity to the provocative action of toxic factors as compared to the animals of reference sites (Bezel, Panin, 2008). There are a lot of other examples (Nekrasova, 1989; Zhuikova, 2001 et al.). An ambiguous resistivity character can be explained by both the properties of organism itself and specific factors due to which it develops. In V.N. Pozolotina’s work with co-authors (2009), it is noted in particular that biological effects of chronic radioactivity impact occur in subsequent generations even after removing the stress whereas heavy metals do not influence generations significantly.

Besides, living system reaction depends on the level of their organization level. For instance, L.P. Braginskiy (1984) absolutely reasonably pointed out that «..if for a single individual a death means most horrible defeat in the struggle for survival, for a population mass deaths is only elimination of less adopted species and some reorganization of biologic system providing its preservation» (Bezel, 2006, p. 23). Speaking about cellular-tissue organization level it should be mentioned that a definite mature cell lives and functions even after relatively high doses of toxicants.

However, when we deal with human survivability and in definite case – the life and the death of a separate man, we cannot consider the problem abstractly and generally. No matter how the anthropocentric approach is criticized, it is important for us to protect human life and health first of all. How deep are the changes taking place in biosphere, and how it will reflect on the human health state – these are urgent problems that humankind has to face. Unfortunately, we do not have enough data to estimate the average indicators of human organism element composition, though this problem was stated by V.I. Vernadskiy as early as at the beginning of the last century. He wrote: «The key disadvantage is complete absence of full element analysis of living substance… We do not have them even, for instance, such an organism as the man, whose organism has been under study for centuries…» (Vernadskiy, 1960, p.148). At the same time the question of environmental geochemical transformation has been investigated intensively enough. Global consequences of technogenesis (Fersman, 1937) are widely known, the include greenhouse effect, desertification of arid zones, pollution and regulation of surface runoffs, acid rains, and some other global problems. Mankind has faced the problem of global anthropogenic-geochemical dissipation (Yanshin et al., 1998). Anthropogenic dissipation of elements is a regular effect of industrial technogenesis. The global scale of this process was first spoken of at the end of the 70’s in the last century. It was determined that the real threat for mankind survival and protection of the Earth’s biosphere poses the anthropogenic dissipation of such biota toxic elements as arsenic, mercury, chromium, lead, vanadium, cadmium etc. (Bockris, 1977; Tyutyunova et al, 2001; others).

Modern analytical achievements allow for observation of changes in geochemical background of various spheres of our planet including biosphere, living shell penetrating into all other ones. Thus, according to V.N. Bashkin’s data (2004) In Europe of 1996 the general natural mercury emission into the atmosphere amounted 219 tons a year, whereas the direct anthropogenic one – 326 ton/year. Table 2.1 demonstrates the data on global emission of some elements conditioned by biosphere transformations in the conditions of technogenesis (Yermakov, 2003). Obviously, the technogenic element emission exceeds significantly the natural one. The author noted that «at present anthropogenic factors are so enormous and momentary that pose an urgent problem of local and global evaluation of current technogenic processes and organisms’ protection from their harmful impact» (Yermakov, 2003, p.6).

The scales of environmental – geochemical transformations in biosphere are spoken about in details V.А. Alexeenko’s works (2000, 2006). The author classifies «…such geochemical changes in biosphere that have an impact on living matter and definite organisms» (Alexeenko, 2006, p.386). He presented the three basic causes for this impact: 1) changing content of an element (its distribution); 2) changes in its spreading (dissipation) and 3) change in proportions between main types of chemical element occurrence and appearance of new forms.

The changes are of both global and local character connected with the activity, as a rule, of one or several industrial objects the study of which deals with applied problems.

Table 2.1.

Global emission of chemical elements (thous.t/year)
(according to V.V. Yermakov, 2003)

Element	Natural emission	Technogenic emission
Pacyna (1992)	Mukherjee (2001)	Pacyna (1992)	Mukherjee (2001)
Cd Co Cr Cu Hg Mn Ni Pb Zn V As	0,96 5,4 53,9 18,9 0,16 18,6 45,5 66,1 7,8	0,1-3,9 0,6-11,4 4,5-83 2,2-53,8 0-4,9 51,5-582 2,9-56,8 0,9-23,5 4-86 (70)* 1,1-23,5	7,6 - 30,5 35,4 3,6 38,3 55,7 86 (90)* 18,8	5,6–37,7 – 585–1310 542–1403 1,6–15 706–2633 93,3–494 479–1039 689–1954 21,4–138 52,4–111,6

Note: ()*- the data from Nore (1994)

To the global technogenic transformations of environmental-geochemical biosphere shell the author attributes the so-called lead pollution in particular. A vivid example is the fact of lead accumulation in Greenland glacier (Fig.2.1). Though the element content is various, its clear correlation with the amount emitted into the atmosphere by enterprises and vehicles is obvious (Nebel, 1993, with reference to Murozumi, 1969). According to Bunce (1994) production and consumption of this element is closely related to the human activity (Fig.2.2). It should be noted that living organisms strongly react to the changes of this element in the environment both upwards and downwards. In case with lead, the number of automobiles directly influences the increase of concentration in plants (Fig.2.3), the measures taken to decrease in its content in the environment, was accompanied by decrease in its content in blood of people (Fig.2.4).

Fig. 2.1. Lead content in Greenland glaciers. The age of ice samples corresponds to their depth (from B. Nebel, 1993)

Fig.2.2. Lead production and consumption in the human history (Bunce, 1994)

Fig.2.3. Changes in lead concentrations in the bush leaves from the beginning of August till October at the traffic density per day: 1 – 28 thous.; 2 – 12 thous. (Batoyan, 1990)

Fig. 2.4. Decrese in lead level in blood of the US population at stopping production of ethylene gasoline (Silbergeld, 1995)

These graphs demonstrate convincingly the performance of one of B. Kommoner’s laws «Everything interconnected».

The global changes in biosphere as a result of technogenesis, definition of which was suggested by А.Ye. Fersman in 1937 (Fersman, 1937) can be judged by the changes in accumulation level of absolutely alien element to biosphere – plutonium. Thus, before 1945 this element did not exist at all. In 1953 he was detected in the amount 0,0007 Bq/g, in 1954 the amount raised to 0,013 Bq/g, by 1958 the activity of the element in human pulmonary tissue reached 0,25 Bq/g («Plutonium…», 1994).

In the 50 – 70’s of the last century by the example of this element the other authors showed that changes in concentration of this element as a result of intensive anthropogenic impact could range widely in living organisms (Schepers, 1955; Warren, Delavault, 1960; Cannon, Bowlse 1962, Leigverf, Spegt, 1970, Paige, 1971, Brucks, 1982). Thus, Kopito with co-workers (1967) showed that lead content in hair in case of lead poisoning reached 0,1% at standard concentration – 2,4 × 10^-3%. D. Brise – Smith (1971) stated that for males living in cities of Philadelphia the lead level was significantly higher than the standard and amounted sometimes more than 0,5 × 10^-4%. The blood standards for the US and England as well as New Guinea were adopted the content 0,2× 10^-4% (Bockris, 1977; Brucks, 1982).

One could assume the presence of similar reaction of living matter to changes in concentration of any other substance. For instance, development of nuclear technogenesis has resulted in abnormally high concentrations of a number of specific elements (such as plutonium, uranium, cesium and others) in the objects of living and non-living nature. The results of L.P. Rikhvanov’s et al (2002) research testify that the level of fission element accumulation (U²³⁵, Pu, Am and other transuranium elements) in the environment has increased at global scale 2 – 3 times (Fig.2.5). But in definite local sites, the places of nuclear-fuel cycle plants, nuclear test sites (NTS) this level changed even more (Arkhangelskaya, 2004; Zamyatina, 2008, Bolsunovsky e.a., 2004).

Global changes are well demonstrated by L.P. Rikhvanov’s et al. (2007) data on uranium content in ice water (Fig.2.6), cesium according to А.М. Mezhibor’s data (2009) in peats (Fig.2.7).

Everywhere there are changes of element soil composition conditioned by both local transformations and global fallouts of technogenic components (А.I. Perelman (1955, 1989), V.А. Kovda et al (1980); М.А. Glazovskiy (1988; 1994), B.B. Polynov (1956), В.А. Alexeenko (2001); G.V. Motuzova (2000, 2001), V.B. Il’in (1985, 1991); V.V. Dobrovolskiy, (1983, 2008); N.L. Baydina, 2004; L.P. Rikhvanov et al. (1993); Ye.G. Yazikov et al. (2010) and many others).

Fig. 2.5. Changes in global background of fissionable radionucleus (U-235, Pu, Am и др.) within the last 150 years (in terms of f – radiography of tree rings). Conditional signs: 1 – the curve of observing stations; 2 – the smoothed curve; 3 – the regional level. (from Rikhvanov et al, 2002).

Fig.2.6. Uranium content in snow melting water of Aktru glacier, Gorniy Altay, 2005 (from Rikhvanov, et al)

А B

Fig.2.7. Cesium content in peats in the zone of SCC effect (А) and reference region (B) (according to Mezhibor’s data, 2008).

Changes in the global geochemical background are typical for water medium as well. For example, oil pollution as a result of hydrocarbon production and transportation results in irremediable damage. From the moment of starting oil sea shipping in tankers about 5 mln tons of oil have spilled into the sea annually (Zo Bell, 1964; et al). The process of emergency oil release as it happened in Gulf of Mexico in 2010 led to irreversible consequences that are difficult to estimate at the moment. High water pollution level with oil and petrochemicals is observed in extensive sea basins of Mexico and Arabian Gulfs, the north coast of Alaska and Canada, in Caribbean and Arabian seas and other zones of the World Ocean where natural oil seepages are located on the coast and continental shelf (Sadovnikova et al, 2006). In addition, burial of chemical, radioactive wastes is changing the geochemical view of the Ocean, involving living organisms directly into these transformations. Global transfer of substances with aerosols and river runoffs forms the peculiarities of benthonic deposition in the ocean estuaries and bottom, gives evidence to speak about element redistribution in hydrosphere (Korzh, 1991, others). The climate change has also contributed to the process of redistribution. For instance, according to V.P. Shevchenko’s (2006) data the river runoffs as one of the environmental pollution mechanisms in Arctic became more significant. It is connected with soil melting on the territory previously related to the permafrost zone, that is accompanied by presence of anthropogenic components accumulated for many years in the river water flowing into the seas of the Arctic Ocean (Izrael et al, 2002). Processes taking place in the World Ocean could result in shift of the equilibrium due to its enormous scale. With respect to pollutants the ocean mass serves as an efficient buffer capacity. That is why it is more strongly influenced by the pollutants’ residue disturbing the oceanic life cycles. The heavy metal pollution of the Ocean with such metal as mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, chromium, etc poses a vast threat. Owing to close interconnection among all Earths’s shells it is impossible to predict all consequences of intensive accumulation of toxicants in any of them. As a good example of it may serve a notorious human disease appeared in Minamat prefecture Japan between 1953 and 1960, from which 111 people died or became disable. The cause of the disease was eating fish and shrimps poisoned by dimethylmercury discharged into the sea by polyvinylchloride plant (Barbiue, 1978). Other toxic elements can cause the toxication of human organism as well in case of consumption of sea food (Brieger, Rieders, 1959). Marine animals, filtering organisms in particular, are capable of accumulating radioactive elements entering the ocean after nuclear explosion and industrial effluents. Radioactive wastes, intake of which according R. Kolas (1973) in 1958 amounted about 10 000 tons a year, in 1965 was as much as 100 000 (Barbiue, 1978). Nowadays according to some estimations, at uranium ore extraction and production plants have accumulated 10⁸m³ of radioactive wastes of 1,8 × 10⁵ Cu activity (the data from Rikhvanov, 2009 with reference to Gupalo, 2002) in waste tips and tailings. It is difficult to say what part of this large quantity will enter the hydrosphere.

The flow of organic pollutants into water is also increasing (Barbiue, 1978, Gennadiev et al, 2006). Significant damage is made by large amount of chemical substances produced for military purposes and buried in Barents and other seas.

P.А. Popov (2003, 2007), G.А. Leonova (2008, 2009), Т.I. Moiseenko (2009) and many other researchers showed in their works that there are changes in living matter of fresh water basins connected with anthropogenic-technogenic factors. The results of numerous investigations show the local and global processes of changes in element river water composition and living organisms, обитающих в них (М.S. Panin (2002), Toropov, 2006; А.К. Sviderskiy (2006), Bolsunovsky, et. al. (2005)). All these transformations prove the fact of global changes in hydrosphere geochemical background one more time. Undoubtedly, they have an impact on formation of living matter element composition.

A number of scientists are trying to solve the problem of chemical substance standards (Krivolutskiy, 1984; Goncharuk, Sidorenko, 1986; Izrael et al, 1991; Terytse, Pokarzhevskiy, 1991; Vorobeychik et al, 1994 and others). The serious problem is the search for criteria of definitions «standard», «pollution», «pathology» etc. The question of applying the standard indicators for analysis of environmental conditions and its influence on living organisms, including human organism (as self-preservation instinct does act) is «a corner stone» at development of behavior strategies and taking decisions on pathology prevention and treatment. The problem of load standards in ecosystems have been discussed in our country for more than two decades, but no concept would answer the questions in practice (Fedorov, 1976; Krivolutskiy, 1984; Goncharyk, Sidorenko, 1986; Izrael et al, 1991; Terytse, Pokarzhevskiy, 1991; others). A subject of ecosystem standard assessment could be only the man,though this point of view is not common as for a system itself any condition is «standard» (Vorobeychik et al, 1994, Bezel, 2006). Such an approach to the given problem was developed in Т.D. Alexandrova’s (1988) and D.А. Krivolutskiy’s with coauthors (1984) works. The connection between the state of population health and biogeochemical territory structure allows for the idea of possibility and necessity to develop the parameters of ecological standards based on the study of this structure both in natural landscape and in anthropogenically changed sites.

According to V.V. Dobrovolskiy (1983): «Technogenic dissipation of metals not so affects the planetary pollution as it does harm to the restricted areas … in the sites of local pollution biota is deeply destroyed, there appear conditions dangerous for population. Taking into account the regularities of dissipated element geochemistry is necessary for prediction and prevention of undesirable consequences» (Dobrovolskiy, 1983, p.255).

Researches carried out by the scientists of Siberia (Vorobieva et al, 1992; Moskvitina, 1988, 1999; Moskvitina, Kokhanov, 2002; Kuranova, 1992, 2003; Kuranov, 2000, 2009; Babenko, 2000, 2006; Leonova, 2008, 2009; Popov, 1996, 2000 and many others) show convincingly the correctness of the conclusion. Thus, Numerous studies performed in Tomsk Oblast in different periods have demonstrated that the main enterprises of the city have a sufficient impact on geochemical peculiarities of various environments, including the composition of living organisms. Influence of the city is shown in the works of Tomsk researchers А.P. Boyarkina, N.V. Vasilieva, G.G. Glukhov (see Rikhvanov et al. 1993). Thus, А.P. Boyarkina et al. (1980) stated the decrease in a number of elements depending on the distance from Tomsk city in such media as milk, honey, children’s hair (Table 2.2).

N.S. Moskvitina’s et al (1999, 2000) have stated that the elements accumulated in the organs of mammals, mice in particular living in the sites with high technogenic load, correspond to geochemical characteristics of the region involved.

Table 2.2.

Microelement content (mg/kg) in different environments selected at different distance from the city (from А.P. Boyarkina, 1980).

Element	Children’s hair	Honey	Milk
Near zone	Far zone	AC	Near zone	Far zone	AC	5 km	15 km	30 km
Br Na K Cl Rb Zn Fe Au Sc Co	0.327 10.4 16.79 59.92 - - - - - -	0.104 3.89 7.11 23.51 - - - - - -	2.7 2.4 2.5 - - - - - -	- - - - - - - 0.396 0.253 0.258	- - - - - - - 0.157 0.145 0.100	- - - - - - - 2.5 1.7 2.5	14.20 - - - 13.82 16.06 34.03 - - -	13.82 - - - 19.91 15.71 59.49 - - -	11.01 - - - 13.82 17.15 68.63 - - -

Note: «-» - element is not determined; AC – Accumulation coefficient.

These investigations were made in the impact zone of the Tomsk north industrial region characterized by large number of plants of different profile affecting the adjacent territories.

А.S. Babenko (2000) points out that the most suitable object for observation of some rare-earth element dissipation (Th, Hf, Yb, Eu, Rb) are staphylinides, whereas for the elements U, Br grey-sided voles are preferable (Babenko, 2000).

V.N. Kuranova et al (1992, 2003) stated that microelement composition of amphibians reflects the impact of environment on them.

G.А. Leonova’s (2009), Popov’s (2001), А.V. Toropov’s (2006) researches prove clearly the influence of technogenesis on water biota – plankton, algae, and fish at local level.

L.P. Volkotrub’s studies (1995) showed the necessity of improvements in monitoring techniques of technogenic pollutions to reveal the sites with high risk of human diseases.

Hence, by the present moment extensive material about biogeochemistry of living organisms has been accumulated, that requires consideration and enhancement of traditional approaches to the analysis of biogeochemical indicators in terms of rapid and significant changes in biosphere.

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