Common cues for the reader

(Devices That Further Coherence)

CUES THAT LEAD THE READER FORWARD

То show addition:	To show time:	To show time:
Again Moreover At length Later And Nor Immediately Previously An And then Too thereafter Formerly Besides Next Soon First Equally important First After a few hours second,etc. Finally second,etc. Afterwards Next, etc. Further Lastly Finally And then Furthermore What’s more Then

CUES THAT MAKE THE READER STOP AND COMPARE

But	Notwithstanding	Although
Yet	On the other hand,	Alhtough this is true,
And yet	On the contrary,	While this is true,
However	After all,	Conversely
Still	For all that,	Simultaneously
Nevertheless,	In contrast,	Meanwhile
Nonetheless,	At the same time,	In the meantime,

CUES THAT DEVELOP AND SUMMARIZE

To give examples:	To emphasize:	To repeat:
For instance,	Obviously,	In brief,
For example,	In fact	In short,
To demonstrate,	As a matter of fact,	As I have said,
To illustrate,	Indeed,	As I have noted,
As a illustration,	In any case,	In other words,
	In any event,
	That is,

To introduce conclusions:	To summarize:
Hence,	In brief,
Therefore,	On the whole,
Accordingly,	Summing up,
Consequently,	To conclude,
Thus,	In conclusion.
As a result,

APPENDIX

ESL / EFL Teaching - Glossary of Terms

Advanced	The word advanced refers to levels C1 and C2 as defined in the Global Scale grid of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. You should take into account that sometimes materials are based on different definitions of an advanced learner.
Authentic materials	Resources in the target language which could be used for language learning and teaching although they were not originally designed for this purpose, e.g.: newspapers; on-line weather forecasts; timetables; guides to museums or galleries. Remember that you need not understand every word to gain a lot of information!
Beginner	The word beginner refers to levels A1 and A2 as defined in the Global Scale grid of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. You should take into account that sometimes materials are based on different definitions of a beginner.
CALL	Computer assisted language learning.
Case Study	Following a real life example from beginning to end.
EAP	English for academic purposes.
EFL	English as a foreign language.
EIL	English as an international language.
ESL	English as a scond language.
ESP	English for special purposes. Designed to give students instruction in specific content areas.
Intermediate	The word intermediate refers to levels B1 and B2 as defined in the Global Scale grid of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. You should take into account that sometimes learning materials are based on different definitions of an intermediate learner.
Keywords	The most important terms or phrases.
Kinesthetics	Learners prefer different styles in learning languages. A kinesthetic learner is one who prefers to learn by physically moving and actively participating (also called a hands-on-learner).
Level	Knowing a language ranges from recognizing a few words to competently and effectively communicating in a variety of demanding situations. This path can be divided into steps called levels, such as beginner, intermediate and advanced.
MOO	A MOO (Multi-User-Domain Object Oriented) can be described as a type of on-line computer game where users can build their own environment and communicate with other 'players'. There are MOOs designed specifically for language learning."
Role Play	A learning activity in which you assume a role to practise a variety of language skills.
Skill	Knowing a language consists of several areas, such as reading, writing, listening and speaking. These are called skills. Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary can also be practised separately and often appear on lists of skills, even if they are incorporated in the other skills. Pronunciation and spelling can also be seen as separate skills within the areas of speaking and writing. Sociocultural and functional skills refer to the ability to use a language in a culturally and socially appropriate way.
Source Language	Source language is the language in which the learning material or resource is presented. It is easier to use resources with a source language you already know. For example: 1. A resource for learning Finnish, intended for speakers of German, explaining grammar and vocabulary in German: Finnish = target language, German = source language. 2. An English to Spanish dictionary: English = source language, Spanish = target language. 3. A research article in Dutch on teaching French to young learners: Dutch = source language, French = target language.
Tandem Learning	Two people learn each other's languages by meeting regularly, in person or via e-mail, chat or telephone etc. Half the time they use one language, half the time the other.
Target Language	Target language is the language which you want to learn or into which you are translating. In addition, in the context of Lingu@net Europa, target language is the language the resource is designed to teach or to which the resource refers. For example: 1. A resource for learning Finnish, intended for speakers of German, explaining grammar and vocabulary in German: Finnish = target language, German = source language. 2. An English to Spanish dictionary: English = source language, Spanish = target language. 3. A research article in Dutch on teaching French to young learners: Dutch = source language, French = target language.
TEFL	Teaching English as a foreign language.
TESL	Teaching English as a second language.

Some useful phrases for future teachers

Answer your names, please.

I’ll call out your names.

What was your homework for today?

Take out your books/ put away/

Open your books at page…

Begin/ start reading.

Begin reading from the second paragraph/ fifth line from the top (bottom) of the page

Read as far as the bottom of the page.

Read till the end of the paragraph.

Read a little louder (slower, quickly).

Read the text aloud (to yourselves).

Don’t read/ go so fast, you are reading very/too fast.

Go on reading until I tell you to stop.

Go on reading from where she left off.

Carry on.

Now, turn over the pages /turn to page…/

That will do/ that’s enough, thank you.

What can’t you understand? What’s the matter?

Did she make any mistakes in her reading?

Translation: translate/ there are 2 variants/ to translate word for word.

How do you translate…?/ What is the English (the Russian) for….?

Variants in translation (not versions) / Who has a different variant?

Look up the new words in the dictionary.

Working at the blackboard.

Come to the blackboard! Clean the blackboard! Write on the blackboard!

I am going to write the new words on the blackboard. Divide the blackboard into 2,3,4 parts, columns.

Draw the line down in the middle of the blackboard! Look at the blackboard!

Wipe off the blackboard, wipe off the word, and use it correctly.

Use the duster; don’t use your fingers!

Correct – incorrect

Write down in abbreviated form, not fully.

Copy something down.

Spell out the word (orally)

Stand aside (at the blackboard, don’t leave)

Step aside – (go to the place)

Go to your place /seat/ - (when one is at the blackboard)

Asking the task.

I’m going to…

Ask questions on(about) the text /Answer some questions to the text

Answer some questions in turn / Don’t answer out of turn

Repeat- (what has been said before) / Say it again (if a mistake was made)

Say it all together (not in choir)

Speak up / a little louder (I can’t hear you)

Listen how I say it (listen to me)

Don’t interrupt her (not interfere-physically mostly)

Stop (don’t) prompting her

To leave cut (of articles, prepositions)

To use the wrong word

Be careful, you are still making the same mistake

Hang up (put up) the picture on the wall

Look at the picture! What can you see in the picture?

Written test

Take out your copy-books

Write (put) the date, your name

Leave a wider margin

Distribute – collect

Hand in – hand out

Home-work (from the text-book) /Task- (smth. additional to work on)

Assignment- (some informational, individual task –outside class-room, smth. additional)

Evaluation – end-of-term evaluation

Average- (above-, below-)

You are not up to standard

Mind your pronunciation, intonation, spelling

Be careful with your…

Your mark (for today) is only “a three”

You’ve got “a three” today

Discipline.

Sit (stand) still, don’t fidget, quiet, please

You are very noisy today

Don’t look out of the window, look into your book

Don’t all speak at once

Wait till it is your turn

Try harder

You haven’t been (are not) listening to what I’ve said

Put up your hands/ raise your hands

Take it down/ write down / put down

Don’t call out

To check (up) homework / go through

Plug on (switch on) the tape-recorder at the main socket (wall socket)

Empty/spare disc

Number of the tape

Head/ ear phones

Turn up (down) the volume (sound)

The sound needs adjusting/ regulating

Play back

Wind/ rewind the tape onto its disk

The tape is twisted

Straighten out the tape and rewind it

To break the tape. Get the glue and join the tape

Press-buttons – stop-buttons

Switch over to the loud-speaker

PUNCTUATION *

* based on MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 2nd ed, 1984

1. Apostrophes (')

Apostrophes indicate contraction (do not = don't) and possessives (John's).

Apostrophes are also used to form the plurals (p's and q's; A's, B's. C's).

2. Colons (:)

A colon indicates that what follows will be an example, explanation, or elaboration of what has just been said.

He was in the midst of a dilemma about his career: he wanted to stay, but he preferred the job in Florida.

Colons are commonly used to introduce quotations (He said: «Where are you?») and to separate titles from subtitles (Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays).

3. Commas (,)

Commas are required: (a) between items in a series; (b) between coordinate adjectives; (c) before coordinating conjucnctions joining independent clauses; (d) around paren­thetical elements; and (e) after fairly long phrases or clauses preceding the main clauses of sentences.

(a) The experience demanded blood, sweat, and tears.

(b) We listened to an absorbing, frightening account of the event.

(c) Congress passed the bill by a wide margin, and the president signed it into law.

(d) The invention, the first in a series during that decade, completely changed people's lives.

(e) After carefully studying all the available historical docu­ments and personal writings, scholars could come to no defini­tive conclusion.

Commas are also used in dates (June 23, 1983), names (Cal Ripken, Jr.) and addresses (Rosemary Brady of 160 Can-oil Street, Brooklyn, New York).

3. Dashes (-)

The dash may be used: (a) around parenthetical elements that represent a break in the flow of thought; (b) around par­enthetical elements that require a number of internal commas; and (c) before a summarizing appositive.

(a) The rapid spread of the disease — the number of reported cases doubled each six months — helped create the sense of panic.

(b) Many twentieth-century American writers — Faulkner, Capote, Styron, Welty, to name only a few—come from the South.

(c) Computer chips, integrated circuits, bits, and bytes — these new terms baffled yet intrigued.

4. Exclamation marks (!)

Exclamation marks follow the words of an exclamation (i.e., an expression of sudden strong feeling).

«I'm hungry!» she exclaimed.

5. Hyphens (-)

Hyphens are used to connect numbers indicating a range (1-20) and also to form some types of compound words, par­ticularly compound words that precede the words they modify (a well-established policy, a first-rate study). Hyphens also join prefixes to capitalized words (post-Renaissance) and link pairs of coequal nouns (poet-priest, scholar-athlete).

6. Italics (and/or underlining)

Some titles are italicized (underlined in typing), as are let­ters, words, or phrases cited as linguistic examples, words re­ferred to as words,* and foreign words in an English text. Ital­ics are sometimes used for emphasis (I never said that).

* The word Heartfelt is composed by joining heart and felt.

7. Parentheses ()

Parentheses enclose parenthetical remarks that break too sharply with the surrounding text to be enclosed in commas. Parentheses sometimes dictate a greater separation than dashes would, but often either set of marks is acceptable, the choice depending on the other punctuation required in the context.

8. Periods (.)

Periods end declarative sentences.

9. Quotation marks («»)

Quotation marks should enclose quoted material, certain titles and words or phrases purposely misused or used in an ironic or other special sense (e.g., Their «benefactor» was ulti­mately responsible for their downfall).

10. Semicolons (;)

Semicolons are used: (a) between items in a series when some of the items require internal commas; (b) between closely related independent clauses not joined by coordinating con­junctions; and (c) before coordinating conjunctions linking independent clauses that require a number of internal com­mas.

(a) In one day the indefatigable candidate campaigned in Vail, Colorado; Columbus, Ohio; Nashville, Tennessee; and Teaneck, New Jersey.

(b) On the one hand, demand is steadily decreasing; on the other, production keeps inexplicably increasing.

(c) The overture begins with a brooding, mournful passage in the strings and woodwinds, one of the composer's most passionate statements; but the piece concludes with a burst of lively, spirited, almost comic music in the brass and per­cussion.

11. Square brackets ([])

Square brackets are used: (a) for a parenthesis within a pa­renthesis where necessary to avoid two pairs of parentheses;

(b) to enclose interpolations in quotations; and (c) to indi­cate missing or unverified data in documentation.

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