Kazakhstan—Education System

The education system in Kazakhstan was strongly influenced by the Russian and Soviet education systems. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the czarist government attempted to Westernize the Kazakh education system by sponsoring Russian-language schools and gymnasiums and encouraging the Kazakh elite to study at Russian universities. Yet a majority of ordinary people studied at local maktab s and madrasah s, where religious subjects were an important part of the curriculum. According to various estimates, at the beginning of the twentieth century the literacy rate stood at about 9 to 14 percent among the male ethnic Kazakhs and below 5 percent among the female ethnic Kazakhs. Since the early 1920s the Soviet government sponsored a free system of general and tertiary education that emphasized sciences,mathematics, and practical skills. Mass illiteracy in the republic was eradicated in the 1930s. In 1929, the alphabet of the written Kazakh language had been changed from Arabic to Latin; in 1940, it was changed from Latin to the Cyrillic script. In the 1970s and 1980s, Kazakhstan was able to maintain its literacy rate at about 98 percent, but could not catch up with the information technologies. In the 1980s, practically no schools in Kazakhstan had computers or access to computer technologies.

- After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there were three major changes in the education system of Kazakhstan. First, using the Kazakh language as the medium of instruction was increasingly emphasized.

- Second, there were significant cuts in the state funding of education. Third, the country made several attempts to reform the education system to meet economic changes and shifting labor market demands.

The constitution of Kazakhstan (1995) stipulates that general education is mandatory and free, and that citizens have the right to receive a free tertiary education on a competitive basis. According to the constitution, the state sets uniform compulsory standards in education, as the Ministry of Education has to approve curriculum, textbooks, budgets, and so forth. This effectively put all public and privately funded education institutions under state control. Kazakh and Russian are the major languages of instruction, but the state provides support for education in other languages for ethnic minority groups (for example, Uzbeks, Germans). The constitution also stipulates separation of church and state, and no religious education is allowed in public schools.

- At the age of three, children usually begin kindergarten, where they receive some basic reading and mathematics skills. At the age of seven, they begin an eleven-year compulsory education program, a primary four-year cycle, and a secondary seven-year cycle. The official figures for 1999 listed about 1,900 preschool establishments attended by 185,000 children. Approximately 8,280 elementary and secondary schools were attended by more than 3.1 million students. In addition, there were 244 specialized secondary schools (about 222,000 students), 131 gymnasiums and 85 lyceums (both are specialized elite schools), 62 evening schools, and 21 training centers. Approximately 85 percent of children of the relevant age group are enrolled in the secondary schools.

- After completing secondary schooling, students may enter tertiary education institutions (universities and institutes), which usually offer five-year programs. Most of the education at the tertiary level is conducted in Kazakh or Russian, although throughout the 1990s there were some attempts to introduce English as a medium of instruction at some universities or at least at some faculties in major universities. According to the official statistics, in 1999 there were 132 tertiary education institutions, including 59 that were state-owned, attended by approximately 260,000 students, and 73 private institutions, attended by approximately 60,000 students. Private universities and some state-owned universities charge between $500 and $1,000 per academic year (2000–2001 academic year estimates).

- After completing a five-year program, students may apply for a three-year aspirantura (postgraduate studies program), which combines course work and a dissertation. Upon completion of the aspirantura, students get the degree of kandidat nauk (equivalent to a master's degree). To receive a doctorate, students must have practical experience in the field (teaching or research) and complete an additional three- to five-year program.

- During the 1990s, the education system in Kazakhstan experienced a serious crisis, as state funding dwindled, along with the quality and prestige of higher education. The Kazakh government has tried to reform the education system, emphasizing computerization, supporting private investment in educational institutions, and encouraging the introduction of new courses, which are in demand in Kazakhstan. Recently, the possible introduction of a U.S.-style credit system in some private universities has been under discussion.

Grammar: Emphatic constructions

Different means of emphatic constructions are used in literary, publicistic and other styles. Emphasis is widely used to single out some elements of the expression, to make it emotional and expressive.

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