Agriculture, mass production, the labor movement, and the economic system

"The business of America," President Calvin Coolidge said in 1925, "is business." This formulation is actually cannier than it may appear. Substitute "preoccupation" for the first "business," and you have a capsule summary of the entrepreneurial spirit behind America's prosperity.

This chapter examines agriculture, the first American industry; the American style of mass production; the labor movement; and the nation's economic system.

A NATION OF FARMERS

Agriculture in the United States has changed dramatically over the last 200 years. At the time of the American Revolution (1775-83), 95 percent of the population was engaged in farming. Today that figure is less than 2 percent. Although individuals or families own 85 percent of all farms in the United States, they own only 64 percent of the farmland. The remainder is owned by corporations, large and small, and farming and its related industries have become big business -- "agribusiness." Yet for all the changes, agriculture is a constant in American life, and the food produced is safe, abundant, and affordable.

Early in American history, farmers set the tone for the rest of the nation. Farmers have never been as self-sufficient as myth would have it, dependent as they are on the uncertainties of weather and the marketplace. Nonetheless, they have exhibited an individualism and an egalitarianism admired and emulated by the rest of society.

As settlement advanced from east to west, U.S. agriculture attained a richness and variety unmatched in most other parts of the world. This is true still today, in large part owing to the quantity of land and the generosity of nature. Only in a relatively small portion of the western United States is rainfall so limited that deserts exist. Elsewhere, rainfall ranges from modest to abundant, and rivers and underground water allow for irrigation where needed. Large stretches of level or gently rolling land, especially in the Midwest, provide ideal conditions for large-scale agriculture.

In most sections of the United States, land was too abundant and labor too scarce for the English system -- in which a landed gentry owned vast estates and most farmers were tenants -- to take hold. North American agriculture came to be based on a multitude of family farms. Moreover, these farms tended to be scattered and isolated, rather than clustered around villages, thus enhancing the farmer's individualism and self-reliance.

Readiness to embrace new technology has been characteristic of American farmers, and throughout the 19th century one new tool or invention followed another in rapid succession. For example, the scythe and cradle replaced the sickle for harvesting grain, then gave way to Cyrus McCormick's mechanical reaper in the 1830s. By the time of the American Civil War (1861-65), machines were taking over the work of haying, threshing, mowing, cultivating, and planting -- and, in doing so, spurring big increases in productivity.

Another factor in the rise of agricultural output was the rapid flow of settlers across the Mississippi River in the late 19th century. The federal government promoted the internal migration in several ways, including the Homestead Act. Enacted in 1862, the act perpetuated the existing pattern of small family farms by offering a "homestead" of 65 hectares to each family of settlers for a nominal fee.

For a time inventions and pro-farming policies were almost too successful. Overproduction became a serious problem after the Civil War. With demand unable to keep pace with supply, the prices farmers received for their products fell. The years from the 1870s until about 1900 were especially hard for the American farmer.

GOVERNMENT'S ROLE

Beginning with the creation of the Department of Agriculture in 1862, the federal government took a direct role in agricultural affairs, going so far as to teach farmers how to make their land more productive. After a period of prosperity in the early 20th century, farm prices declined in the 1920s. The Great Depression of the 1930s drove prices still lower, and by 1932 farm prices had dropped, on average, to less than one-third of their 1920 levels. Farmers went bankrupt by the tens of thousands. Many present-day farm policies have their roots in the desperate decade of the 1930s and the rescue effort contained in the New Deal.

Today a maze of legislation embodies U.S. farm policies. On the theory that overproduction is a chief cause of low farm prices, in some circumstances the government pays farmers to plant fewer crops. Certain commodities can be used as collateral to secure federal loans, or "price supports." Deficiency payments reimburse farmers for the difference between the "target price" set by Congress for a given crop and the actual price paid when the crop is sold. And a federal system of dams and irrigation canals delivers water at subsidized prices to farmers in western states.

Price supports and deficiency payments apply only to such basic commodities as grains, dairy products, and cotton; many other crops are not federally subsidized. Farm subsidy programs have been criticized on the grounds that they benefit large farms most and accelerate the trend toward larger -- and fewer -- farms. In one recent year, for example, farms with more than $250,000 in sales -- only 5 percent of the total number of farms -- received 24 percent of government farm payments. There is a growing movement to cut back the government's role in agriculture and to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. Important economic interests defend current farm policy, however, and proposals for change have stirred vigorous debate in Congress.

THE LONG VIEW

Overall, American agriculture has been a notable success story. American consumers pay less for their food than those in many other industrial countries, and one-third of the cropland in the United States produces crops destined for export. In 1995 agricultural exports exceeded imports by nearly two to one.

But agricultural success has had its price. Conservationists assert that American farmers have damaged the environment by excessive use of artificial fertilizers and chemicals to kill weeds and pests. Toxic farm chemicals have at times found their way into the nation's water, food, and air, although government officials at the state and federal levels are vigilant in their efforts to protect these resources.

In the meantime, scientists at research centers across the United States search for long-term solutions. Employing such innovative techniques as gene-splicing, they hope to develop crops that grow rapidly and resist pests without the use of toxic chemicals.

THE AMERICAN STYLE OF MASS PRODUCTION

When U.S. automaker Henry Ford published his autobiography, My Life and Work, in 1922, he used his chapter headings to frame a series of questions: "How Cheaply Can Things Be Made?" "Money -- Master or Servant?" "Why Be Poor?"

These are the very questions that have fascinated generations of American business and industrial leaders. In their drive to find answers, business people have sought to make and distribute more goods for less money and at greater profit. To a remarkable extent, they have done so.

Thanks to several waves of immigration, America gained population rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, when business and industry were expanding. Population grew fast enough to provide a steady stream of workers, but not so fast as to overwhelm the economy.

Industrial expansion was also powered by something in the American character: a strong dose of the entrepreneurial spirit. Some have traced this impulse to religious sources: the Puritan or Protestant ethic that considers hard work pleasing to God. But others have questioned whether the ruthlessness of some American businessmen, especially in the era of the "robber barons" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, is consistent with deep religious feeling.

In the late 18th century, American manufacturers adopted the factory system, which gathered many workers together in one place. To this was added something new, the "American system" of mass production, which originated in the firearms industry about 1800. The new system used precision engineering to transform manufacturing into the assembly of interchangeable parts. This, in turn, allowed the final product to be made in stages, with each worker specializing in a discrete task.

The construction of railroads, beginning in the 1830s, marked the start of a new era for the United States. The pace of building accelerated after 1862, when Congress set aside public land for the first transcontinental railroad. The railroads linked far-flung sections of the country into the world's first transcontinental market and facilitated the spread of settlements. Railroad construction also generated a demand for coal, iron, and steel -- heavy industries that expanded rapidly after the Civil War.

AN INDUSTRIAL NATION

The census of 1890 was the first in which the output of America's factories exceeded the output of its farms. Afterwards U.S. industry went through a period of rapid expansion. By 1913, more than one-third of the world's industrial production came from the United States.

In that same year, automaker Henry Ford introduced the moving assembly line, a method in which conveyor belts brought car parts to workers. By improving efficiency, this innovation made possible large savings in labor costs. It also inspired industrial managers to study factory operations in order to design even more efficient and less costly ways of organizing tasks.

Lower costs made possible both higher wages for workers and lower prices for consumers. More and more Americans became able to afford products made in their own country. During the first half of the 20th century, mass production of consumer goods such as cars, refrigerators, and kitchen stoves helped to revolutionize the American way of life.

The moving assembly line was criticized, however, for its numbing effect on workers, and it was satirized in Charlie Chaplin's movie Modern Times (1936). In more recent years, factory managers have rediscovered that the quality of the product made is as important as the speed and efficiency with which it is made and that bored, depressed workers tend to do inferior work. The assembly line has been modified in many U.S. factories, including automobile-manufacturing plants, where "quality circles" put together an entire car from start to finish, with workers sometimes performing different tasks.

A POSTINDUSTRIAL ECONOMY

It was America's good fortune to be spared the devastation suffered by other nations during the 20th century's two world wars. By the end of World War II in 1945, the United States had the greatest productive capacity of any country in the world, and the words "Made in the U.S.A." were a seal of high quality.

The 20th century has seen the rise and decline of several industries in the United States. The auto industry, long the mainstay of the American economy, has struggled to meet the challenge of foreign competition. The garment industry has declined in the face of competition from countries where labor is cheaper. But other manufacturing industries have appeared and flourished, including airplanes and cellular telephones, microchips and space satellites, microwave ovens and high-speed computers.

Many of the currently rising industries tend to be highly automated and thus need fewer workers than traditional industries. As high-tech industries have grown and older industries have declined, the proportion of American workers employed in manufacturing has dropped. Service industries now dominate the economy, leading some observers to call America a "postindustrial" society. Selling a service rather than making a product, these industries include entertainment and recreation, hotels and restaurants, communications and education, office administration, and banking and finance.

Although there have been times in its history when the United States pursued an isolationist foreign policy, in business affairs it has generally been strongly internationalist. The presence of American business has drawn a mixed response in the rest of the world. People in some countries resent the Americanization of their cultures; others accuse American firms of pressuring foreign governments to serve U.S. political and economic interests rather than local interests. On the other hand, many foreigners welcome American products and investment as a means of raising their own standards of living.

By injecting new capital into other economies, American investors can set in motion forces impossible to predict. Some Americans are concerned that by investing abroad, American business is nurturing future competitors. They note that U.S. government policies fostered Japan's economic resurgence after World War II and that American corporations shared technology and sent experts to teach the Japanese such practices as quality control -- practices that the Japanese have since carried to new and highly profitable heights. The ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993, however, confirmed the continuing American commitment to robust international trade.

LABOR UNIONS

The factory system that developed around 1800 changed working conditions markedly. The employer no longer worked side-by-side with his employees. He became an executive, and, as machines took over manufacturing tasks, skilled workmen saw themselves relegated to the status of common laborers. In bad times they could be replaced by newcomers at lower wages.

As the factory system grew, workers began to form labor unions to protect their interests. The first union to hold regular meetings and collect dues was organized by Philadelphia shoemakers in 1792. Soon after, carpenters and leather workers in Boston and printers in New York organized too. Union members would agree on the wages they thought were fair, pledge to stop working for employers who paid less, and pressure employers to hire union members only.

Employers fought back in the courts, which commonly ruled that concerted action by workers was an illegal conspiracy against their employer and the community. But in 1842 the Massachusetts Supreme Court held that it was not illegal for workers to engage peacefully in union activity. This ruling was widely accepted, and for many years afterwards unions did not have to worry about conspiracy charges. Unions extended their efforts beyond wages to campaign for a 10-hour workday and against child labor. Several state legislatures responded favorably.

STRUGGLES AND SUCCESSES

During the great surge of industrial growth between 1865 and 1900, the work force expanded enormously, especially in the heavy industries. But the new workers suffered in times of economic depression. Strikes, sometimes accompanied by violence, became commonplace. Legislatures in many states passed new conspiracy laws aimed at suppressing labor.

In response, workers formed organizations with national scope. The Knights of Labor grew to a membership of 150,000 in the 1880s, then collapsed quickly when newspapers portrayed the Knights as dangerous radicals. More enduring was the American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, a leader of the Cigarmakers Union. Comprising craft unions and their members, the AFL had swollen to 1.75 million members by 1904, making it the nation's dominant labor organization.

At a time when many workers in Europe were joining revolutionary unions that called for the abolition of capitalism, most American workers followed the lead of Gompers, who sought to give workers a greater share in the wealth they helped produce. A radical alternative was offered by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a union started in 1905 by representatives of 43 groups that opposed the AFL's policies. The IWW demanded the overthrow of capitalism through strikes, boycotts, and sabotage. It opposed U.S. participation in World War I and sought to tie up U.S. copper production during the war. After reaching a peak of 100,000 members in 1912, the IWW had almost disappeared by 1925, because of federal prosecutions of its leaders and a national sentiment against radicalism during and after World War I.

In the early 1900s, an alliance formed between the AFL and representatives of the American Progressive Movement (see chapter 3). Together they campaigned for state and federal laws to aid labor. Their efforts resulted in the passage of state laws prohibiting child labor, limiting the number of hours women could work, and establishing workers' compensation programs for people who were injured on the job. At the federal level, Congress passed laws to protect children, railroad workers, and seamen, and established the Department of Labor in the president's cabinet. During World War I labor unions made great strides, and by January of 1919, the AFL had more than 3 million members.

RED SCARES AND DEPRESSION

At the start of the 1920s, organized labor seemed stronger than ever. But a Communist revolution in Russia triggered a "Red Scare," a fear that revolution might also break out in the United States. Meanwhile, workers in many parts of the country were striking for higher wages. Some Americans assumed that these strikes were led by Communists and anarchists. During the Progressive Era, Americans had tended to sympathize with labor; now they were hostile to it. Once again, the courts restricted union activity.

The pendulum swung back toward unions during the Great Depression. As part of his New Deal, President Franklin Roosevelt vowed to help "the forgotten man," the farmer who had lost his land or the worker who had lost his job. Congress guaranteed workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively, and established the National Labor Relations Board to settle disputes between unions and employers.

Not long after, tensions within the AFL between skilled craftspersons and industrial workers led to the founding of a new labor organization, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The new organization grew rapidly; by the late 1930s it had more members than the AFL.

The Depression's effect on employment did not end until after the United States entered World War II in 1941. Factories needed more workers to produce the airplanes, ships, weapons, and other supplies for the war effort. By 1943, with 15 million American men serving in the armed forces, the United States had a labor shortage, which women (in a reversal of societal attitudes) were encouraged to fill. Before long, one out of four workers in defense plants was a woman.

THE WORK FORCE TODAY

After the war a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation. Employers charged that unions had too much power, and Congress agreed. It passed laws outlawing the "closed shop" agreement, by which employers were required to hire only union members, and permitted states to enact "right-to-work" laws, which ban agreements requiring workers to join a union after being hired. In 1955 the AFL and CIO merged as a new organization, the AFL-CIO.

In recent decades there has been a decrease in the percentage of workers who join a union. Among the reasons are the decline of heavy industries, which were union strongholds, and the steady replacement of "blue-collar" workers by automation. Even so, organized labor remains a strong force in the U.S. economy and politics, and working conditions have steadily improved.

Meanwhile, the work force includes more women than ever before. And although the American work week typically amounts to between 35 and 40 hours, there are many departures from the norm: people working part-time or on "flexi-time" (for example, for four days they may work 10 hours a day instead of 7 or 8 and take the fifth day off) or "telecommuting" from their homes with the assistance of phone, computer, and facsimile (fax) machine.

THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC SYSTEM

The United States declared its independence in the same year, 1776, that Scottish economist Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, a book that has had an enormous influence on American economic development. Like many other thinkers, Smith believed that in a capitalist system people are naturally selfish and are moved to engage in manufacturing and trade in order to gain wealth and power. Smith's originality was to argue that such activity is beneficial because it leads to increased production and sharpens competition. As a result, goods circulate more widely and at lower prices, jobs are created, and wealth is spread. Though people may act from the narrow desire to enrich themselves, Smith argued, "an invisible hand" guides them to enrich and improve all of society.

Most Americans believe that the rise of their nation as a great economic power could not have occurred under any system except capitalism, also known as free enterprise after a corollary to Smith's thinking: that government should interfere in commerce as little as possible.

THE STOCK MARKET

Very early in America's history, people saw that they could make money by lending it to those who wanted to start or expand a business. To this day, small American entrepreneurs usually borrow the money they need from friends, relatives, or banks. Larger businesses, however, are more likely to acquire cash by selling stocks or bonds to unrelated parties. These transactions usually take place through a stock exchange, or stock market.

Europeans established the first stock exchange in Antwerp, Belgium, in 1531. Brought to the United States in 1792, the institution of the stock market flourished, especially at the New York Stock Exchange, located in the Wall Street area of New York City, the nation's financial hub.

Except for weekends and holidays, the stock exchanges are very busy every day. In general, prices for shares of stock are rather low, and even Americans of modest means buy and sell shares in hopes of making profits in the form of periodic stock dividends. They also hope that the price of the stock will go up over time, so that in selling their shares they will make an additional profit. There is no guarantee, of course, that the business behind the stock will perform well. If it does not, dividends may be low or nonexistent, and the stock's price may go down.

THE SYSTEM MODIFIED

Adam Smith would easily recognize the foregoing aspects of American business, but other aspects he would not. As we have seen, American industrial development in the 19th century took a toll on working men and women. Factory owners often required them to put in long hours for low wages, provided them with unsafe and unhealthy workplaces, and hired the children of poor families. There was discrimination in hiring: Black Americans and members of some immigrant groups were rejected or forced to work under highly unfavorable conditions. Entrepreneurs took full advantage of the lack of government oversight to enrich themselves by forming monopolies, eliminating competition, setting high prices for products, and selling shoddy goods.

In response to these evils and at the insistence of labor unions and the Progressive Movement, in the late 19th century Americans began to modify their faith in unfettered capitalism. In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act took the first steps toward breaking up monopolies. In 1906, Congress enacted laws requiring accurate labeling of food and drugs and the inspection of meat. During the Great Depression, President Roosevelt and Congress enacted laws designed to ease the economic crisis. Among these were laws regulating the sale of stock, setting rules for wages and hours in various industries, and putting stricter controls on the manufacture and sale of food, drugs, and cosmetics.

In recent decades, concerned Americans have argued that Adam Smith's philosophy did not take into account the cumulative effect of individual business decisions on the natural environment. New federal agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, have come into being. And new laws and regulations have been designed to ensure that businesses do not pollute air and water and that they leave an ample supply of green space for people to enjoy.

The sum total of these laws and regulations has changed American capitalism, in the words of one writer, from a "freely running horse to one that is bridled and saddled." There is scarcely anything a person can buy in the United States today that is not affected by government regulation of some kind.

Political conservatives believe there is too much government regulation of business. They argue that some of the rules that firms must follow are unnecessary and costly. In response to such complaints, the government has tried to reduce the paperwork required of businesses and to set overall goals or standards for businesses to reach, as opposed to dictating detailed rules of operation.

If sometimes cumbersome, the rules and regulations governing business conduct today do not seem to prevent ambitious Americans from realizing their dreams -- and occasionally of surpassing them. One such entrepreneur is Bill Gates. Gates started a computer software company called Microsoft in 1975, when he was 20 years old. Just two decades later, Microsoft was the world's largest software company, with 20,000 employees worldwide and annual net income of more than $2 thousand million a year.

canny ['kxnI] a диал. житейски мудрый; уст. хитрый, коварный

substitute ['sAbstItju:t] v (for) заменять; подменять; использовать вместо

the recipe does specify butter, but you can substitute margarinefor butter — рецепт предусматривает

сливочное масло, но вы можете заменить масло маргарином

preoccupation [prI"PkjV'peIS(q)n] n озабоченность; занятость, поглощённость (чем-л); забота

ту greatest preoccupation — самая большая моя забота

capsule ['kxpsju:l] a амер. сокращённый, сжатый, краткий

capsule explanation — объяснение в предельно сжатой форме

capsule version — сокращённый вариант

summary ['sAm(q)rI] n краткоеизложение, конспект; сводка, резюме, выводы

summary of invention — формула изобретения

entrepreneur ["Pntrqprq'nE:] n фр. предприниматель; владелец предприятия

small entrepreneur — владелец мелкого предприятия

spirit ['spIrIt] n душа; дух; натура, личность, индивидуальность; ум

he is a generous [a mean, a noble, a proud, a timid] spirit — у него /это/ широкая [низкая, благородная,

гордая, робкая] душа

prosperity [prP'sperItI] преуспевание, успех

prosperity of an undertaking — процветание /успех/предприятия;

prosperity makes friends, and adversity tries them — удача друзей приманивает, беда — испытывает; =

друзья познаются в беде

A NATION OF FARMERS

engage [In'geIdZ] v (in, on, with) заниматься

to engage in conversation — вести беседу

to be engaged in research — заниматься научно-исследовательской работой

farmland ['fQ:mlxnd] n земля, пригодная для обработки; обрабатываемая земля

to work farmland—обрабатывать землю

remainder [rI'meIndq] n остаток, остатки, остальные

the remainder of his life he spent in the country — остаток своей жизни он провёл в деревне

abundant [q'bAndqnt] а обильный, изобильный

abundant supplies — более чем достаточный запас

constant ['kPnstqnt] п мат., физ. постоянная (величина), константа

to set the styte /tone/ — задавать тон

self-sufficient ["selfsq'fIS(q)nt] a независимый, эк. экономически самостоятельный

myth [miT] n миф

uncertainty [An'sE:t(q)ntI] n изменчивость

uncertainty of temper — изменчивость настроения

marketptace ['mQ:kItpleIs] n базарная, рыночная площадь, рынок (товаров)

nonetheless ["nAnDq'les] adv тем не менее, всё же

I like him nonetheless — несмотря на всё он мне нравится

egalitarianism [I"gxlI'teqrIqnIz(q)m] n эгалитаризм

Affirming, promoting or characterized by belief in equal political, economis, social, and civil rights for all people.

admire [qd'maIq] v восхищаться, восторгаться, любоваться

I admire him for his courage — я восхищаюсь его мужеством

emulate ['emjVleIt] v подражать, следовать примеру

to emulate the best — следовать примеру лучших

1.To strive to equal or excel, especially through imitation: an older pupil -whose accomplishments and style I

emulated.

2.To compete with successfully; approach or attain equality with..

3. Computer Science. To imitate the function of (another system), as by modifications to hardware or software

that allow

the imitating system to accept the same data, execute the same programs, and achieve the same results as the

imitated

system.

advance [ad'va:ns] v продвигаться, идти вперёд, наступать

he advanced on /upon/ me in a threatening manner —он угрожающе двинулся на меня

attain [q'teIn] v достигать, добиваться

he attained the opposite shore — он достиг противоположного берега

Synonyms: reach, achieve, attain, eain, compass. All of these verbs mean to succeed in arriving at a goal or an

objective. Reach, the least specific, like the other terms connotes the expenditure of effort: reached shelter

before the storm broke; reach an understanding. Achieve suggests in addition the application of skill or

initiative: achieved international recognition. Attain often implies the impelling force of ambition, principle, or

ideals: trying to attain self -confidence. Gain connotes considerable effort in surmounting obstacles: gained

the confidence of the workers Compass implies circumvention of impediments to success: couldn't compass

the assigned task

unmatched ["An'mxtSt] a не имеющий себе равного, бесподобный, несравнимый

to be unmatched in valour — не уступать никому в храбрости

owing to ['qVINtV] phr prep благодаря, вследствие, по причине

I could not come owing to another engagement — я не мог прийти, потому что был занят

generosity ["dZenq'rPsItI] n великодушие, благородство, щедрость

deliberate generosity -— обдуманная, намеренная щедрость

rainfall ['reInfO:l] n метеор. атмосферные осадки, количество атмосферных осадков

elsewhere [(')els'weq] adv (где-нибудь) в другом месте; (куда-нибудь) в другое место

gently ['dZentlI] adv мягко, тихо, отлого

the road sloped gently to the sea — дорога отлого спускалась к морю

rolling ['rqVlIN] а холмистый

rolling ground— пересечённая /холмистая/местность

scarce [skeqs] a недостаточный, скудный

to be scarce — иметься в недостаточном количестве

fruit will be scarce this year — e этом году фруктов будет мало

gentry ['dsentri] n джентри, нетитулованное мелкопоместное дворянство (тж. the landed gentry)

estate [I'steIt] n поместье, имение, земельное владение (тж a country estate)

to own a landed estate — иметь (большое) имение, быть крупным землевладельцем /помещиком/

to reside on an estate — жить (в своём) имении

tenant ['tenant] n наниматель, арендатор, съемщик, временный владелец

1.One that pays rent to use or occupy land, a building, or other property owned by another.

2.A dweller in a place; an occupant.

3.Law. One who holds or possesses lands, tenements, or sometimes personal property by any kind of title.

to take /to get, to catch, to seize, to grip, to bty/ hold of smth. — а) брать; хватать; хвататься за что-л.; catch hold

of this rope! — хватайся за эту верёвку!; б) добывать; завладевать чём-л.

multitude ['mVltItju:d] n множество, большое число, масса

in multitude — во множестве, в большом количестве

moreover [mL'rqVvq] adv кроме того, более того, сверх того

moreover circumstances are favourable — кроме того, обстоятельства благоприятствуют

don't slow down the movement in this scene-it is tending to drag — не затягивайте ход этой сцены — она и

так растянута serious controversy tends to be studiously avoided — авторы старательно избегают /хотят во

что бы то ни стало избежать/ серьёзных споров

scatter ['skxtq] v разбрасывать, рассыпать, размещать (в разных местах, на разном расстоянии)

garrisons were scattered up and down the country — гарнизоны были разбросаны по всей стране

cluster ['klAstq] v собираться группами, толпиться, тесниться

a group of old women clustered round her — вокруг неё столпились старухи

the village clusters round the church — деревня расположена возле церкви

l.A group of the same or similar elements gathered or occurring closely together;a bunch: "She held out her

hand, a small tight cluster of fingers" (Anne Tyler).

enhance [in'hRns] v увеличивать, усиливать

the candlelight enhanced her beauty — при свечах она была ещё красивее

То make greater, as in value, beauty, or reputation; augment: "She had a sweetness to her face, a warmth that

was enhanced by luminous dark eyes" (Gioia Diliberto).

self-reliance [,selfrI'laiWns] n уверенность в себе, в своих силах

people possessed of self-reliance — люди, полагающиеся только на себя

embrace [im'breIs] v обнимать, заключать в объятия, использовать, воспользоваться

to embrace an opportunity [an offer] — воспользоваться случаем [предложением] succession [sqk'seS(q)n] n последовательность

for two years in succession — два года подряд

disasters came in rapid succession — несчастья сыпались одно за другим scythe [saiD] n с.-х. Коса

cradle ['kreIdl] n колыбель, люлька;тех. рама, опора

sickle ['sik(q)l] n серп

reaper ['ri:pq] n жатка, жатвенная машина

haying ['heIN] n заготовка сена

thrashing ['TrxSIN)] n молотьба

mowing ['mqVIN] n косьба

cultivate ['kAltIveIt] v пахать, обрабатывать, возделывать

planting ['plRntIN] n насаждение; сев, посев, посадка

spur [spE:] v пришпоривать; побуждать, подстрекать (часто spur on) '

to spur smb. to do smth. — побуждать /поощрять/кого-л. сделать что-л.

1.То urge (a horse) on by the use of spurs.

2.To incite or stimulate: "A business tax cut is needed to spur industrial investment" (New York Times). homestead ['hqVm sted, -stId] n

1. усадьба; ферма; крестьянский двор

2. амер. гомстед, участок поселенца

Homestead Act of Congress — гомстед-акт, закон о гомстедах (акт конгресса США о бесплатном

выделении участков земли поселенцам)

homestead exemption — «льгота по гомстеду» (законоположение конгресса США о том, что гомстед

не может быть продан за долги)

perpetuate [pq'peCVeIt] v увековечивать, сохранять навсегда

to perpetuate one's name —увековечить своё имя

fee [fi:] n гонорар; вознаграждение; чаевые; взнос; сбор, пошлина

to keep расе with smb., smth. — идти в ногу с кем-л., чём-л., не отставать от кого-л., чего-л.

GOVERNMENT'S ROLE

root [ru:t] n корень

rescue ['reskju:] n спасение, освобождение, избавление

rescue boat [vehicle] — спасательная лодка [машина] maze [meIz] n

1. лабиринт

a maze of streets — лабиринт улиц

bureaucratic maze — бюрократическая неразбериха

2. путаница

to be in a maze — быть растерянным /сбитым с толку/; запутаться

she was in a maze — она не соображала, что происходит; она была в трансе

embody [im'bPdI] v воплощать, претворять в жизнь, реализовать; облекать в плоть и кровь

to embody a theoretical opinion into a definite scheme — облечь теоретическое воззрение в форму

конкретного плана

collateral [kq'lxt(q)rql] а побочный, второстепенный

collateral evidence — юр. косвенная улика

deficiency [dI'fIS(q)nsI] n

1.1) отсутствие (чего-л.); нехватка, дефицит

serious production deficiencies — серьёзные перебои в производстве (товаров народного потребления)

deficiency of food — нехватка продуктов

2) дефицит; недостающее число или количество

deficiency account — дефицитный счёт

1.The quality or condition of being deficient; incompleteness or inadequacy.

2.A lack or shortage, especially of something essential to health; an insufficiency: a nutritional deficiency.

reimburse [,ri:Im'bE:s] v возмещать, покрывать, оплачивать; возвращать (сумму) to reimburse smb. for damage — компенсировать кому-л. Ущерб

1.To repay (money spent); refund.

2.To pay back or compensate (another party) for money spent or losses incurred.

subsidize ['sAbsIdaIz] v субсидировать, дотировать

deficiency payment - покрытие дефицита

stir [stE:] v шевелить, размешивать; волновать, возбуждать

a book that stirs the soul — книга, которая волнует (душу) the town was stirred by a deep emotion — город был охвачен глубоким волнением

vigorous ['vIg(q)rqs] а сильный; бодрый; энергичный; решительный (о действиях) vigorous measures [protest]—решительные/энергичные/меры [-ый протест] Synonyms: active, energetic, dynamic, vigorous, lively. These adjectives are compared as they mean engaged in activity. Active, the most neutral, merely means being in a state of action as opposed to being passive or quiescent: an active imagination. Energetic suggests sustained enthusiastic action with unflagging vitality: an energeticfund raiserfor the college. Dynamic connotes energy and forcefulness that is often inspiring to others: A dynamic speaker, the senator often persuades her colleagues to change their votes. Vigorous implies healthy strength and robustness: "a vigorous crusader against apartheid and government press restrictions" (Christian Science Monitor). Lively suggests brisk alertness, animation, and energy: / take a lively interest in politics.

THE LONG VIEW

pest [pest] n сельскохозяйственный вредитель, вредное насекомое, паразит

garden pests—садовые вредители

mosquitoes and similar pests — москиты и другие вредные насекомые

vigilant ['vIGIlqnt] а бдительный

to be vigilant against smth. — быть бдительным в отношении чего-л., неусыпно следить /постоянно

наблюдать/за чём-л.

splicing ['splaIsiN)] n биохим. сплайсинг (вырезание участков РНК)

THE AMERICAN STYLE OF MASS PRODUCTION

automaker ['O:tq(V)meIkq] n амер. автомобилестроитель

to frame a sentence — построить предложение

fascinate ['fxsineIt] v очаровывать, приводить в восхищение, пленять

the idea of going on a sea-voyage fascinated him — мысль о морском путешествии привела его в восторг

2) увлекать, вызывать острый или глубокий интерес

space exploration fascinates mankind— человечество увлечено освоением космоса

a drive for self-affirmation — стремление к самоутверждению

drive for power — борьба за власть

gain [geIn] v получать; приобретать, погубить, разорить

to gain experience (as one grows older) — приобретать опыт /набираться опыта/ (с годами)

1. То come into possession or use of; acquire: gained a small fortune in real estate; gained important information

about the enemy's plans..,

2.To attain in competition or struggle; win: gained a decisive victory; gained control of the company.

3.То obtain through effort or merit; achieve: gain recognition; gain a hearing for the proposal.

4.To secure as profit or reward; earn: gain a living; gain extra credits in school.

5.a. To manage to achieve an increase of: a movement that gained strength; gained wisdom with age. b.To

increase by (a specific amount): gained 15 pounds; the market gained 30 points.

6.To come to; reach: gained the top of the mountain..

7.To become fast by (a specified amount of time). Used of a timepiece: My watch gains four minutes a day. overwhelm [,qVvq'welm] v преодолеть; подавить, разбить

the enemy were overwhelmed by superior forces — войска противника были смяты превосходящими силами power ['paVq] v поддерживать; вдохновлять

faith in goodness powers his life — вера в добро освещает всю его жизнь

entrepreneur [,Pntrqprq 'nE:] n фр. предприниматель; владелец предприятия

small entrepreneur — владелец мелкого предприятия

spirit ['spIrIt] п душа; дух; натура, личность, индивидуальность; ум

he is a generous [a mean, a noble, a proud, a timid] spirit — у него /это/ широкая [низкая, благородная,

гордая, робкая] душа

trace [treIs] v выследить; найти следы, признаки

to trace long-lost relations —разыскать родственников, с которыми давно потеряна связь

the police have traced the criminal — полиция выследила преступника Puritan ['pjV(q)rItn] n ист. пуританин

1.A member of a group of English Protestants who in the 16th and 17th centuries advocated strict religious

discipline along with simplification of the ceremonies and creeds of the Church of England.

2.Puritan. One who lives in accordance with Protestant precepts, especially one who regards pleasure or luxury

as sinful.

ruthless ['ru:TlIs] а безжалостный, жестокий

robber ['rPbq] n грабитель, разбойник; вор

baron ['bxrqn] n барон; магнат, туз, вельможа

Wall Street barons — заправилы Уолл-стрита;

Hollywood baron — магнат американской кинопромышленности /Голливуда/;

coal [soap, sausage, oil] barons —угольные [мыльные, колбасные, нефтяные] корояи;

cattle barons — крупные скотоводы

consistent [kqn'sIst(q)nt] a (with) совместимый, сообразный, согласующийся

this is not consistent with what you told me yesterday — это противоречит тому, что вы сказали мне вчера

practices consistent with his beliefs — действия, соответствующие его убеждениям

adopt [a'dPpt] v принимать; усваивать; выбирать

to adopt the attitude of an onlooker — занять позицию /встать в позу/стороннего наблюдателя

to adopt a patronizing tone — принять покровительственный тон

precision [prI'sIZ(q)n] n тех. точность, прецизионность

precision instrument — точный /прецизионный/ прибор

engineering [,enGI'nI(q)rIN] n техника; инженерное искусство; технология

radio engineering — радиотехника

chemical engineering — химическая технология

interchangeable [,Intq'CeInGqb(q)l] а взаимозаменяемый

interchangeable synonyms — взаимозаменяемые синонимы

discrete [dIs'kri:t] а оторванный; отвлечённый, абстрактный

Synonyms: distinct, discrete, separate, several. The central meaning shared by these adjectives is "distinguished

from others in nature or qualities": six distinct colors; a government with three discrete divisions: a problem

consisting of two separate issues; performed the several steps of the process.

set aside ['setq'saId] phr v (for) выделять; предназначать

this was the day set aside for his wedding — на этот день была назначена его свадьба

AN INDUSTRIAL NATION

afterward(s) ['Rftqwqd(z)] j adv впоследствии, потом, позже

buy now, pay afterward(s)!— покупайте в рассрочку /в кредит/!

efficiency [I’fIS(q)nsI] n производительность, продуктивность, прибыльность

the efficiency of labour — производительность труда

to increase efficiency and to diminish cost of output — повысить производительность труда и снизить

себестоимость производства

labor cost заработная плата (как элемент себестоимости); рl. затраты на рабочую силу inspire [in'spaIq] v вдохновлять, воодушевлять; стимулировать

the book was inspired by his travels in the Far East — стимулом длянаписания книги послужила его поездка

по Дальнему Востоку

afford [q'fO:d] v иметь возможность, быть в состоянии (сделать что-л.); позволить себе (покупку, удовольствие)

/ can't afford the journey — я не могу себе позволить такое путешествие

\. То have the financial means for; be able to meet the cost of: not able to afford a new car.

2. To be able to spare or give up: can't afford an hour for lunch.

3.То be able to do or bear without disadvantage or risk to oneself: can afford to be tolerant.

4.To make available; provide: a sport affording good exercise; a tree that affords ample shade.

numb [nAm] v вызывать онемение или окоченение

to chafe numbed feet —растирать окоченевшие ноги

inferior [In'fI(q)rIq] а низкий или низший по значению, достоинствам, ценности, сорту

garnets are regarded as inferior to rubies — гранаты считаются менее ценными, чем рубины

A POSTINDUSTRIAL ECONOMY

it was my good fortune to be present — мне посчастливилось быть там

devastation [,devq’steIS(q)n] n опустошение, разорение

the enormous devastation and suffering associated with the war — невероятная разруха и страдания,

которые несёт с собой война

balancing the productive capacity — устранение диспропорций производственных мощностей

seal [si:l] n печать; клеймо

customs seal — печать таможни [см. тж. 2]

to affix /to put/ one's seal to a document — приложить печать к документу, скрепить документ печатью

to meet the challenge — принять вызов

garment ['ga:mqnt] n предмет одежды; р1. одежда

the upper garments — книжн. верхняя одежда

garment industry ['ga:mqnt, IndqstrI] швейная промышленность

draw [drO:] v (drew; drawn)

the accident drew a great crowd — на месте происшествия собралась большая толпа

a pretty girl drew his eye — его внимание привлекла смазливая девчушка

to draw smb. 's attention (to smth.) — обратить чьё-л. внимание (на что-л.)

mixed [mIkst] а смешанный; разнородный

mixed feeling — смешанное /двойственное/ чувство

response [n'spons] n. Ответ; реакция; реагирование; отклик

ready response — живой отклик

his appeal met with a generous response —его обращение встретило /нашло/широкий отклик

resent [rI'zent] v негодовать, возмущаться; обижаться

he resents criticism — он не терпит критики

does he resent my being here? — ему не нравится, что я здесь? accuse [q'kju:z] v обвинять, винить

to accuse smb. of negligence [of unfaithfulness, of cheating at cards] — обвинять кого-л. в халатности [в

неверности, в шулерстве]

to accuse the technicians of carelessness which caused the breakdown — возлагать на техников винуза

аварию

inject [In'Gekt] v

1. вводить, привносить to inject a remark into a conversation — вставить замечание в разговор

2. тех. впрыскивать; вдувать

3. эк. вкладывать (средства и т. п.)

to put /to set/ smth. in motion — привести что-л. в движение

predict [prI'dIkt] v предсказывать; прогнозировать; пророчить

I predict she'll be a success at the party — я тебе точно говорю, она произведёт впечатление /будет иметь

успех/ на вечеринке

Synonyms: predict, call. forecast, foretell, prognosticate. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "totell

about something in advance of its occurrence by means of special knowledge or inference": predict an eclipse;

couldn't call the outcome of the game; forecasting the weather; foretold the collapse of the government;

prognosticating a rebellion. concern [kqn'sE:n]v

1. касаться (в рассказе); описывать

the story concerns a good girl and a wicked fairy — в сказке говорится о хорошей девочке и злой

2. беспокоить, волновать, заботить

to be concerned about smb. 's health — беспокоиться о чьем-л. здоровье everybody was concerned at the news — все были встревожены /взволнованы/известием

matter of public concern — вопрос, предмет или дело, затрагивающие общественные интересы

nurture ['nE:Cq] v

1. воспитывать; обучать delicately nurtured girl—благовоспитанная девица

2. с.-х. выращивать; выводить (породу, сорт); лелеять; питать (привязанность и т. п.); вынашивать (план и

т. п.)

Synonyms: nurture, cultivate, foster, nurse. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to promote and

sustain the growth and development of: nurturing hopes; cultivating tolerance; foster friendly relations;

nursed, the fledgling business through an economic downturn.

note [nqVt] v упоминать; отмечать; указывать

as the author notes... — как отмечает /указывает/автор...

as I noted before — как я уже /выше/ заметил /упомянул, сказал/

I must just note that...—должен лишь заметить, что...

foster ['fPstq] v благоприятствовать, способствовать развитию; поощрять

to foster artistic talent — способствовать развитию художественного таланта

resurgence [rI'sE:G(q)ns] n возрождение, воскрешение

the resurgence of militarism — возрождение милитаризма

1.A continuing after interruption; a renewal.

2.A restoration to use, acceptance, activity, or vigor; a revival.

height [haIt] n высота, вышина

at a height of 3000 metres above sea level— на высоте 3000 метров подуровнем моря

ratification [,rxtIfI 'keIS(q)n] n юр. утверждение; разрешение, ратификация

conditional [partial] ratification — условная [частичная] ратификация

to be subject to ratification — подлежать ратификации

To approve and give formal sanction to; confirm

commitment [kq'mItmqnt] n обязательство

to meet commitments — выполнять обязательства

to make no commitments — не связывать себя обязательствами

1.a. A pledge to do. b. Something pledged, especially an engagement by contract involving financial obligation.

2.The state of being bound emotionally or intellectually to a course of action or to another person or persons: a deep commitment to liberal policies; a profound commitment to the family.

robust [rq'bAst, 'rqVbAst] а здоровый, крепкий, сильный

robust young fellow — крепкий /дюжий/малый

LABOR UNIONS

executive [Ig'zekjVtIv] n. руководитель, администратор; (ответственный) сотрудник

major [minor] executives —руководящие [рядовые] сотрудники

business executive —руководящий работник, администратор (компании, корпорации и т. п.) due [dju:] n pl. сборы, налоги, пошлины

harbour /port/ dues — портовые сборы

dues and fees — эк. сборы (в отличие от налогов)

carpenter ['ka:pIntq] n плотник; столяр

fair [feq] а честный; справедливый, беспристрастный; законный

fairplay — а) игра по правилам; б) честная игра; честность; справедливость

fair price — справедливая/настоящая/цена

pledge [pleG] v давать торжественное обещание, заверять

they pledged themselves to save their comrades — они торжественно поклялись спасти своих товарищей hire ['haIq] v нанимать

he was hired to do this job — его наняли для выполнения этой работы

to take concerted action — предпринять согласованные действия

conspiracy [kqn'spIrqsI] n заговор, тайный или преступный сговор

conspiracy to overthrow the government — заговор, имеющий целью свержение правительства engage [In'geIG] v участвовать

to engage in local politics — принимать участие в местной политической жизни

ruling ['ru:lIN] n постановление, решение (суда, председателя собрания)

to ask for a ruling — просить председателя или судью вынести постановление

charge [CRG] n обвинение

he was arrested on a charge of murder — он был арестован по обвинению в убийстве legislature ['leGIs leiCq, -lqCq] n законодательный орган

state legislature — законодательное собрание штата (в США) respond [rI' spPnd] v реагировать, отзываться (на что-л.)

to respond to an appeal — реагировать на просьбу

STRUGGLES AND SUCCESSES

surge [sE:G] n большая волна; резкий скачок; всплеск

a surge of interest — подъём интереса

commonplace ['kPmqnpleIs] n '

1. избитое выражение; банальность it's a mere commonplace — это общее место

2. обычная вещь today television is a commonplace — телевидение ныне вошло в быт suppress [sq'pres] v подавлять (восстание и т. п.)

meetings were suppressed by the police — полиция разогнала митинги

n response to your inquiry —в ответ на ваш запрос

scope [skqVp] n пределы; масштаб, размах, сфера, поле (деятельности)

the scope of smb. 's activities — поле /сфера/ чьей-л. деятельности

enduring [In'djV(q) rIN] а прочный; стойкий

enduring peace — прочный мир

comprise [kqm'praIz] v включать, заключать в себе, составлять; охватывать; состоять из

the Examining Board comprises several members — экзаменационная комиссия состоит из нескольких членов

craft union — профсоюз ремесленников

swell [swel] v (swelled [-d]; swollen) увеличиваться, нарастать, усиливаться

the ranks of the unemployed are daily swelling —ряды безработных увеличиваются с каждым днем

the population swelled— население (сильно) выросло

seek [si:k] v (sought)(часто for, after) искать, разыскивать; пытаться найти, добиваться

to seek smb. 's approval [smb. 's help] — добиваться чьего-л. одобрения

I. To try to locate or discover; search for.

2.To endeavor to obtain or reach: seek a college education.

3.То go to or toward: Water seeks its own level.

4.To inquire for; request: seek directions from a police officer.

5. To try; endeavor: seek to do good.

Synonyms: seek, hunt. quest, search. The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to make an effort to find

something": seeking information; hunting through the telephone book for a number; questing after treasure;

searched his face for his reaction.

overthrow [,qVvq 'TrqV] v (overthrew; overthrown) свергать, ниспровергать; уничтожать

to overthrow a government — свергнуть правительство

sabotage ['sxbqtRZ] n саботаж

tie up ['taI'Ap] phr v l) связывать, увязывать, препятствовать; приостанавливать; замораживать, не давать ходу

to tie up money — замораживать средства

to tie up property [a succession] — накладывать ограничения на пользование имуществом[наследством] copper ['kPpq] n медь

hot coppers — пересохшее горло (с похмелья); to cool one's coppers — опохмеляться

prosecution [,prPsI 'kju:S(q)n] n судебное преследование

to be liable to prosecution — наказуемо законом

sentiment ['sentimqnt] n чувство; мнение (чаще pl), отношение, настроение

public sentiments — общественное мнение

to express [to change] one's sentiments — выразить [изменить] своё мнение /отношение/

injure ['InGq] v ушибить, повредить, ранить

to be injured in an accident — получить травму в аварии

seaman ['si: mqn] n (pl -men [-men]) моряк, мореплаватель

stride [straId] n большой шаг; (обыкн. pl) успехи; прогресс, продвижение

to make great /rapid/strides — делать большие успехи

RED SCARES AND DEPRESSION

trigger ['trIgq] v инициировать, вызывать (что-л.), дать начало (чему-л.) (тж. trigger off) a spark triggered the explosion — искра вызвала взрыв

scare [skeq] n паника; панический страх

baseless scare — беспричинный страх: to strike smb. with scare — вселять ужас в кого-л. Synonyms: friehten, scare, alarm, terrify, terrorize, startle, panic. These verbs mean to cause a person to experience fear. Frighten and the less formal scare are the most widely applicable terms: "Better be killed than frightened to death" (Robert Smith Surtees). Don't let the size of the task scare you. Alarm implies the often sudden onset of fear or apprehension: Her sudden and inexplicable loss of weight alarmed her doctor. Terrify implies overwhelming, often paralyzing fear: "The regulars, terrified by the yells of the Indians... gathered themselves into a body" (George Bancroft). Terrorize implies fear that intimidates; the word sometimes suggests deliberate coercion: "premeditated and systematized terrorizing of the civil populations" (Edith Wharton). Startle suggests fear that shocks momentarily and may cause a sudden, involuntary movement of the body: The clap of thunder startled us. Panic implies sudden frantic fear that often impairs self-control and rationality: The radio drama was so realistic that it panicked listeners who tuned in after it had begun.

assume [q'sju:m] v предполагать, допускать

let us assume that this is true — допустим, что это правда

anarchist ['xsnqkIst] n анархист

hostile ['hPstaIl] а враждебный; недружелюбный; враждебно относящийся (к чему-л.)

to be hostile to smth. — враждебно /отрицательно/относиться к чему-л.; принимать в штыки что-л.

l.Of, relating to, or characteristic of an enemy: hostile forces; hostile acts.

2.Feeling or showing enmity or ill will; antagonistic: a hostile remark,

3.Unfavorable to health or well-being; inhospitable or adverse: a hostile climate,

pendulum ['pendjVlqm] n маятник

Дата добавления: 2015-11-14