Read and translate the text.

PROTISTA

Protista constitutes a diverse kingdom containing thousands of species of single-celled organisms. Because many questions still persist concerning the ancestry of these organisms, deciphering which organisms should be classified in this kingdom is often a more arbitrary decision than most biologists would like. Because Protista is presented in the majority of biology texts as one of the five kingdoms, that's how the organisms are presented here.

Because multicellularity evolved many times, many multicellular organisms are more closely related to their ancestral unicellular lineages than they are to other multicellular organisms. This accounts for the reason that some members of the plant kingdom (such as the large multicellular algae) are sometimes considered to be multicellular protists. And certain members of the fungal kingdom (such as slime molds) are sometimes considered closer to the protistal lineage than to that of the fungi, and therefore are placed in the former. And in some classifications certain single-celled, heterotrophic protists are grouped with the animal kingdom. These are even respectable classifications in which all the major groups considered to be protists are placed in other kingdoms, and Protista is entirely dispensed with. The kingdom Protista as presented here, however, reflects the most widely accepted classification found in the majority of biology texts.

Discrepancies between different classifications are partially attributable to the way protists are defined. Rather than being grouped together by their shared characteristics, they are grouped by exclusion. That is, in addition to usually being unicellular, all protists are eukaryotes, so they are not included among the phylum Monera; since none develop from an embryo, they are not included among the phylum Plantae; since most do not develop from spores, they are not included among the phylum Fungi; and since none develop from a blastula, they are not included among the phylum Animalia. The organisms that remain tend to be those placed in this kingdom, Protista.

This kingdom includes the most simple, and often the most primitive, eukaryotic microorganisms and all their immediate descendants. Each protist cell has a nucleus and all the other eukaryotic properties. Members of this kingdom vary considerably in structure and physiology, ranging from heterotrophs (usually free-living, although there are parasitic forms) to photosynthetic autotrophs.

Protists appear to have evolved from a moneran type of ancestor. Protists possess specialized features such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, centrioles, chloroplasts, and mitochondria, as well as different kinds of vacuoles, granuoles, and fibrils. In addition, the average unicellular protist is considerably larger than the average moneran, and its cell division has become distinct from moneran cell division, having evolved mitotic and meiotic cell division.

It is theorized that the primitive protists were both plant-like and animal-like, having the capacity to obtain food by different mechanisms, as well as being able to photosynthesize additional food internally. There is considerable evidence that symbiotic relationships with prokaryotes living inside some early eukaryotes led to the development of chloroplasts and mitochondria. These organelles are contained in protists, as well as in many other more advanced eukaryotes.

Protista consists of several widely divergent phyla. Some of the unicellular, nonphotosynthetic protists are grouped as the Protozoa. These are subdivided into four classes: the Mastigophora (flagellates), the Sarcodina (amoebas), the Ciliophora (ciliates), and the Sporozoa (spore formers). The first three classes are identified according to their locomotor structures; however, sporozoans have no locomotor organelles, and instead they are characterized by their spores. To date, about 50,000 species of protozoans have been described.

Together, there are several other phyla that are often called true algae. They include about 25,000 described species, some of which belong to evolutionary lineages that were already well-developed more than 450 million years ago. Nearly all the members of these phyla are photosynthetic. They include forms that occur either as single cells, as filaments of cells, as plates or in planes of cells, or as a solid body. They range in size from unicellular microscopic organisms to giant multicellular forms such as the kelps, which often reach lengths exceeding 150 feet. A brief description of these photosynthetic groups is presented below.

There are three phyla of unicellular algae. Euglenophyta (euglenoids) live in fresh water, move by means of one to three flagella per cell, and have no cell wall. Chrysophyta usually include the yellow-brown algae, yellow-green algae, and the diatoms. They are mostly marine and contain pectic compounds, with siliceous materials providing the cell wall components. Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates) live in marine environments, in fresh water, and in moist soil. They are characterized by having two flagella that beat in different planes, causing the organisms to spin. They often have distinctive, if not bizarrely shaped, cellulose walls. Like diatoms, the dinoflagellates are major components of the phytoplankton; they are aquatic, free-floating, photosynthetic, and usually microscopic.

There is another group of algae, sometimes called the true algae. In a recent classification by Margulis and Schwartz, the true algae are grouped with the protists, along with the water molds, slime molds, and slime nets, forming a kingdom they call Protoctista.

COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. Choose the right variant for the multiple-choice statements.

1. All protists

a. together represent a kingdom b. are eukaryotic organisms

c. are unicellular d. are multicellular e. a and b.

2. All protists

a. photosynthesize b. are heterotrophs

c. have tissue differentiation d. all of the above e. none of the above.

3. The following are protists:

a. blue-green bacteria b. bacteria c. bryophytes

d. euglenoids e. lycopsids.

4. Unlike monerans, protists possess

a. endoplasmic reticulum b. mitochondria c. Golgi bodies

d. chloroplasts e. all of the above.

5. The nonphotosynthetic protists are known as

a. thallophytes b. Bryophytes c. chlorophytes

d. protozoa e. Chrysophyta.

6. All of the following are protozoans, except for

a. Sarcodina (amoebas) b. Ciliophora (ciliates)

c. Mastigophora (flagellates) d. Sporozoa e. Tracheophyta.

7. Which of the following is prokaryotic?

a. dinoflagellates b. blue-green bacteria

c. brown algae d. red algae e. diatoms.

2. Ask questions revealing the main points of the text.

3. Think of 5-7 statements that would contradict the contents of the text.

LANGUAGE FOCUS

1. Find synonyms to the following words in the text:

lineage	random	to explain	considerable
difference	offspring	lineal	differ
elementary	simultaneously	single-celled	strange, odd, unusual

2. Complete the table (where possible):

Noun	Verb	Adjective
protista
	to persist
		multicellular
ancestry
lineage
		divergent
		bizarre

3. Define the following terms:

protista	unicellular	multicellular	kingdom
phylum	classification	ancestor	true algae

4. Match the first half of a sentence in column A with the appropriate second half in column B:

A	B
1. Protista constitutes a diverse kingdom	a) having the capacity to obtain food by different mechanisms.
2. Members of the kingdom Protista vary	b) giant multicellular forms such as the kelps.
3. It is theorized that the primitive protists were both plant-like and animal-like,	c) considerably in structure and physiology.
4. True algae range in size from unicellular microscopic organisms to	d) containing thousands of species of single-celled organisms.

5. Put the parts of the sentences in the right order:

a. To, unicellular, their, lineages, many, are, closely, organisms, related, multicellular, ancestral.

b. Protists, to be, some, of, plant, the, kingdom, sometimes, are, considered, multicellular, members.

c. Properties, each, cell, protist, has, and, a, all, the, eukaryotic, nucleus, other.

d. Appear, from, to, protists, evolved, a, have, moneran, ancestor, type, of.

e. Algae, there, several, phyla, other, are, that, often, are, true, called.

f. Million, they, already, ago, 450, were, more, well-developed, than, years.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES

1. Prepare dialogues discussing: a) general information about the kingdom Protista; b) primitive protists; c) true algae; d) unicellular algae.

2. Prepare a report on the topic under discussion.

UNIT 4

FUNGI

PRE-READING AND READING TASKS

1. Make sure you know the following words and word combinations:

ascus (pl. asci)	['xskqs] ['xskaI]	аск
basidium	[bq'sIdIqm]	базидий
fungus (pl. fungi)	['fANgqs] ['fANg(a)I]	гриб
mold	[mqVld]	плесень, плесенный гриб
mutual	['mju:tSVql]	взаимный
hypha (pl. hyphae)	['haIfq] ['haIfi:]	гифа, нить грибницы
lichen	['laIkqn, 'lItS(q)n]	лишайник
mycelium	[maI'si:lIqm]	грибница
sac fungus	[sxk] ['fANgqs]	сумчатый гриб
septum (pl. septa)	['septqm] ['septq]	перегородка
slime mold	[slaIm] [mqVld]	слизистый гриб
water mold	['wO:tq] [mqVld]	водная плесень

Exercise 2. Read and translate the text.

FUNGI

There is some evidence that the organisms classified as fungi arose from protists along several different evolutionary lines. In fact, depending on the classification, fungi are sometimes placed within the kindgom Protista, or within the kingdom Plantae, or in their own kingdom, Fungi.

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms; most exist in multicellular form, although some go through an amoeba-like stage, and others, such as yeast, exist in a unicellular form. Unlike the photosynthetic algae and plants, fungi do not photosynthesize but absorb food through their cell walls and plasma membranes.

The slime molds are different from most other fungi in that they are mobile during part of their life history. Some slime molds exist as a plasmodium, which is a multinuclear (coenocytic) mass of cytoplasm lacking cell walls. The plasmodium moves about and feeds in an amoeboid manner. The amoeboid mass is a slime mold's diploid phase.

Other slime molds have separate feeding amoebas that occasionally congregate into a pseudoplasmodium that then sprouts asexual fruiting bodies. Because they pass through an amoeba-like stage, slime molds are occasionally classified as protists. Slime molds are usually found growing on such decaying organic matter as rotting logs, leaf litter, or damp soil, where these viscous, glistening masses of slime are usually white or creamy in appearance, though some are yellow or red.

During its vegetative phase, the slime mold plasmodium moves about slowly, phagocytically feeding on organic material. Under certain conditions, the plasmodium stops moving and grows fruiting bodies, from which spores are released that upon germination produce flagellated gametes. The gametes fuse, forming zygotes that lose their flagella and become amoeboid. The diploid nucleus continually undergoes mitotic divisions without any cytokinesis, and the organism develops into a multinuclear plasmodium that usually reaches a total length of five to eight centimeters.

Most fungi secrete digestive enzymes that hydrolyze nearby organic matter into minerals and compounds that can then be absorbed. Chemicals that don’t get absorbed, as well as the fungal waste products, enrich the surrounding area and become available to plants and other nearby organisms.

Fungi obtain their nutrition in any of three ways, or in any combination of these three ways: as saprophytes, living on dead organic matter; as parasites, attacking living plants or animals; and in mycorrhizal associations, in which they have a symbiotic relationship with plants, usually tree or shrubs.

Fungal spores are tiny haploid cells that float through the air, dispersing the fungi to new habitats. They are relatively resistant to high and low temperatures as well as to desiccation, and can survive long periods in an unsuitable habitat. When conditions become right, however, the spores germinate and grow. They absorb food through long, threadlike hyphae. The mass of branching hyphae creates the body of the fungus, called the mycelium. Mycelia grow, spreading throughout their food source. Some hyphae are coenocytic, having many nuclei within the cytoplasm. Others are divided by septa into compartments containing one or more nuclei. The rigid cell walls of the hyphae and fruiting bodies are composed of cellulose, or other polysaccharides, although some are composed of chitin.

The mycelium constitutes the largest part of the fungal body, yet few ever see mycelia because they are usually hidden within the source of food they are eating. Sometimes, however, they can be seen on the forest floor spreading over moist logs and dead leaves. When mycelia break into fragments, fungi can reproduce vegetatively. Each fragment may grow into a new individual fungus. Other methods of fungal reproduction involve the production of spores, which can be formed asexually or sexually. The spores are usually produced on structures that extend above the food source, where they can be blown away and travel to new environments. Slime molds send up spore-bearing fruiting bodies. The mycelia of mildew send up aerial hyphae that form spores. The fruiting bodies that most people are familiar with, those associated with such fungi as mushrooms, are huge compared to the tiny fruiting bodies that cover moldy bread and cheese.

Most fungi are either parasitic or symbiotic. Parasitism occurs when one individual benefits while the other is harmed, and symbiosis is a mutually beneficial relationship between two individuals. By far the majority of fungal species are terrestrial and reproduce both sexually and asexually. Many have mycelia that grow in a close, intimate manner with plant roots. In such a relationship, the plant benefits by receiving nitrogen and phosphorus, while the fungus benefits by receiving nutritious carbohydrates.

The water molds and their relatives include the molds that grow on dead animals in the water. The powdery mildew found growing on Concord grapes is also a member of this group.

Zygomycota represent a group of fungi that, like the Oomycetes, have coeno-cytic hyphae. They also have chitinous cell walls. Although there are hundreds of species in this group, few people recognize any of them.

The Ascomycota, or sac fungi, form another group of fungi that is widespread although just a few species are familiar. Among this group's 30,000 orsospecies are the yeasts, certain bread molds, and the fungi that produce penicillin, as well as the species involved in making Roquefort and Camembert cheeses.

The yeasts are unicellular, but the Ascomycetes also include many multicellular types that form hyphae with perforated septa, allowing the cytoplasm and organelles such as ribosomes, mitochondria, and nuclei to flow from one cell to another.

Asexual reproduction is common among the Ascomycetes. It occurs whenever the projections known as conidia form and the asexual conidiospores pinch off. The sexual part of the life cycle involves two hyphae growing together so that the two nuclei become housed within the same cell. When these cells, called dikaryons, develop into the fruiting bodies known as asci,which are characteristic of the Ascomycetes, the two nuclei fuse inside each ascus (singular of asci). This is the process of fertilization. Then the diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis, forming four haploid nuclei. These undergo mitosis, forming eight haploid nuclei that become the ascospores. When the ascus ruptures, the ascospores are liberated.

The Basidiomycota, or club fungi, include most of the common mushrooms. Their fruiting bodies are known as mushrooms, basidia, or clubs; they are formed when two hyphae fuse. This is fertilization. A diploid nucleus is formed that undergoes meiosis, forming four haploid nuclei that move along thin extensions created by outgrowths of the cell walls. These nuclei are pushed to the edge of the club, where these basidiospores (spores) easily break off from their delicate stalks and are carried away by the slightest breeze. If they land in a suitable location, the spores germinate and grow hyphae, which form a mycelium that eventually sends up more fruiting bodies.

The imperfect fungi represent about 25,000 fungal species for which sexual reproduction has either been lost or has yet to be observed. Without information about their sexual stages, it has not been possible to identify the characteristic structures that would help specialists classify them appropriately. Accordingly, they have all been lumped together and called imperfect. Members of this group are responsible for ringworm and athlete's foot; both are fungi that infect people without ever sprouting fruiting bodies.

Mycorrhizal associations occur when the hyphae of a fungus grow around, between, and sometimes even into living plant root cells. Such associations have been found to occur in at least 90 percent of all the different plant families. Eighty percent of all the angiosperms (flowering plants) may have such associations. These relationships are symbiotic.

Plants benefit because the mycorrhizae mobilize nutrients by secreting enzymes that help to decompose the litter in the soil. And then, by acting as root hairs, they help to absorb the nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, by moving these nutrients from the soil into the root tissue. Mycorrhizae also secrete antibiotics that help reduce the plant's susceptibility to infection by pathogens. The mycorrhizae benefit by absorbing the chemicals and carbohydrates that constantly leak through the roots.

Many of the mushrooms seen under trees and shrubs are the fruiting bodies of the fungi that have a mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of the neighboring plants. One often sees certain species of mushrooms associated with certain species of plants because mycorrhizal relationships are often quite specific.

Lichens are symbiotic combinations of organisms living together intimately. The species involved are always a fungus and either a chlorophyte (green algae) or a cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria). The fungi are always either members of Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes. Although the fungi involved in lichens are usually not found growing alone, the photosynthetic portion of the lichens sometimes does live on its own. It is clear that the fungus living in a lichen benefits from the organic compounds obtained from the photosynthesizing member of the association. The algae may obtain water and minerals from the fungus, but this part of the interaction isn’t well understood.

Because lichens are so tolerant of drought, heat, and cold temperatures, they are often the most important autotrophs found on recent lava flows, as well as on the stones used to construct buildings and gravestones. Lichens are also associated with dry, exposed soils, such as those in some deserts, and they also commonly occur in cold, exposed regions.

Most lichens reproduce either by fragmentation, when pieces break off and are blown elsewhere, or by spores produced by the fungal part of the lichen. The spores are blown or washed elsewhere, where they may grow and come in contact with an appropriate algal species. This marks the beginning of another lichen.

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