Как, каким образом совершается действие, по каким критериям оценивается.

3. К какому сроку совершается действие (к).

Прочитайте следующие предложения и укажите номер значения предлога “by”.

e.g.	1. By the beginning of the 20^th century most chemical elements had been discovered. (3) 2. The frozen ice is forced out by the pressure of the gas in the bottle. (1) 3. This is done by placing the bottles cock downwards. (2)

1. Common salt is refined by dissolving it in water, filtering the solution and then evaporating the water.

2. Some of the physical properties are used by the chemist to identify substances.

3. The metric system was made by a group of scientists.

4. New sources of the rare earths had been discovered by the middle of the twentieth century.

5. Mendeleev’s success in predicting the properties of the unknown elements is shown very clearly by his prediction for ekaboron.

6. Rolled sandwiches are made by rolling up a very fresh, buttered slice of bread, spread by some soft filling.

7. Proteins are supplied by meat, fish, cheese, eggs, milk and so on.

8. 9.3 calories are produced by 1 gramme of fat.

9. Of the 90 elements of which the earth is composed only about 28 had been identified by 1800.

10. The vitamin C content is easily reduced by cooking the vegetable for too long time in too much water.

Задание 5. Прочитайте данные предложения и выберите слово или словосочетание, соответствующее по смыслу сказуемому. Письменно объясните, что хотел сказать автор, используя избранное слово или словосочетание. Руководствуйтесь образцом.

e.g.	Vitamin A is supplied by many vegetables. (is found by, is found in) – The author means that vitamin A is found in many vegetables.

1. The vitamin C content is considerably reduced by boiling foods.

1. is decreased by

2. affects

2. Coffee had been known in European countries only by the beginning of the 17^th century.

1. had been found

2. had become popular

3. During milling dust is blown away by currents of air.

1. is removed by

2. is supplied by

4. The secret of making chocolate was kept by the Spaniards for about 100 years.

1. belonged to

2. was unknown to

5. Goiter, an overgrowth of the thyroid gland, which results from deficiency of iodine is usually relieved by eating food containing iodine.

1. is caused by

2. is prevented and cured by

6. Bacteria in milk are destroyed in two ways: by pasteurization and sterilization.

1. are killed

2. are introduced

7. The absorption of calcium is helped by the presence of vitamin D in the diet.

1. is better in

2. is slowed down in

8. The change in the texture of malt is brought about by starting the grain of barley into growth.

1. causes

2. is the result of

Задание 6. Прочитайте следующие зачины утверждений и определите, что хотел упомянуть пишущий далее. Исходите из смысла всего утверждения, чтобы правильно определить значение предлога “by”. Укажите номер значения предлога (см. задание № 4).

e.g.	Potato can be cooked in a great variety of ways. Some potato dishes can be made by (2). The Centigrade scale is used by (1).

1. Reaumur and Fahrenheit were the inventors of two thermometers. The third thermometer scale was devised by ….

2. In canning and bottling the moisture content of the food does not change, but all spoilage organisms are destroyed by ….

3. Eggs can be preserved when they are plentiful for use when they are scarce. Chinese Ancient Eggs, sometimes called 100-year-old eggs, are preserved by ….

4. Fructose and glucose can be produced chemically by ….

5. In Britain dinner, the main meal of the day, was at 11 a.m. in the 16^th century, but towards the end of the century it was beginning to take place rather later. It had been set at 5 p.m. by ….

6. In 1869 the chemical elements were arranged in a periodic table, according to their atomic weight by ….

Задание 7. Закончите следующие утверждения, подбирая их продолжение в правой колонке. Воспроизведите каждое утверждение вслух полностью.

e.g.
1. Now many foodstuffs are prepared by 2. The energy value of diet is measured in 3. The vitamin C content is considerably reduced in 4. The vitamin C content is easily reduced by	stale vegetables. (1) canning. (2) cooking the vegetables too long in too much water. (3) calories. (4)
1 – 2, 2 – 4, 3 – 1, 4 – 3

A.	1. The cacao bean was discovered in 2. In the 19^th century canned foodstuffs were prepared for 3. Carbohydrates are produced by 4. Much less than a ton of dried fruit is produced from	a ton of fresh fruit. (1) the process of photosynthesis in green plants. (2) Mexico. (3) explorers and sailors. (4)
B.	1. In wine-producing countries vinegar is made from 2. Sponge is made by 3. Power mills to polish rice were invented in 4. The canning process was invented by	about the middle of the 19^thcentury. (1)   Francois Appert. (2) mixing yeast with warm water and a small quantity of flour. (3) red or white wines. (4)
C.	1. In wine-producing countries vinegar is made from 2. Sponge is made by 3. Power mills to polish rice were invented in 4. The canning process was invented by	about the middle of the 19th century. (1) Francois Appert. (2) mixing yeast with warm water and a small quantity of flour. (3) red or white wines. (4)
D.	1. The metric system is used in 2. Sugars and starches are quickly used by 3. Radioactivity was discovered in 4. Radium was discovered by	Madam Marie Curie. (1) many countries. (2)   1896. (3) the body. (4)

Задание 8. Прочитайте следующие тексты и выберите правильный ответ на вопрос, заданный после каждого текста.

1. The oldest law that chemists find useful was announced by Boyle in 1662. He noticed that the volume of gas was inversely proportional to the pressure upon it if the temperature did not change. Boyle’s discovery was followed by Lord Kelvin’s discovery of the absolute temperature scale. This scale has the advantage that all temperatures are positive: 0º is 273º K and – 20º C is 253º K.

Whose discovery came earlier?

1) Kelvin’s 2) Boyle’s

2. The atomic theory of John Dalton was the foundation stone of the rapidly growing science of chemistry in the 19^th century. Of the ninety elements of which the earth is composed only about twenty eight had been identified by 1800. By 1854 this number had risen to fifty four, and by end of the century to eighty.

By what time had the chemists learned the properties of 54 elements?

1) by 1800 2) by 1854 3) by 1900

3. The canning process was invented by Francois Appert, a Frenchman, in 1810. In the early 19^th century canned foods were prepared for explorers and sailors, but canned food was not general until the 20^th century. Canning allows to keep foods for a very long time. In 1957 Peter Scott opened some of food which had been left in the Antarctic by his father Captain Scott, over 40 years before, and the food was in good condition.

Who had canned foods in the expedition in the Antarctic?

1) Captain Scott

2) Francois Appert

3) Peter Scott

4. The food we eat has to supply us with energy, with body-building material, with mineral salts and with vitamins. The nutritive value of foods is influenced by their preparation and cooking. Good cooking improves the appearance and flavour of food, and these factors, in their turn, stimulate the secretion of the digestive juices within the body, and so improve digestion.

What affects the nutritive value of foods?

1) the appearance of food 2) the preparation and cooking 3) the secretion of the digestive juices

Задание 9. а) Опознавание пассивной конструкции за счет формальных признаков самого словосочетания, включающего сказуемое.

Если между формой глагола “to be” и третьей формой смыслового глагола стоит наречие типа “never, often” или отрицательная частица “not” или же словосочетание, связывающее данное утверждение с предыдущим (in this way, therefore), то данная конструкция является пассивной. Если же между этими глаголами стоит существительное без предлога, то это существительное является именной частью сказуемого, а следующая за ним третья форма глагола – определением существительного.

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