Homographs

Homographs are words which are spelt the same as each other but which have a different pronunciation and meaning.

In addition to homophones (words with the same sound, but different
spellings, meanings, or origins), there are also homographs (words
with the same spellings, but different meanings, origins, or
pronunciations. There are two large subgroups:

Subgroup 1:

These common words have the same spelling and pronunciation, but
very different meanings and/or origins. Common examples:

homographs	differences*
bear (N) bear (V)	bear (N): a kind of animal bear (V): to carry
date (N) date (V)	date (N): a kind of fruit; a calendar time date (V): to determine the age; to "go out"
fast (Adj) fast (V)	fast (Adj): quick fast (V): to abstain from (choose not to eat) food
hide (N) hide (V)	hide (N): animal skin hide (V): to conceal
net (N) net (Adj)	net (N): woven trap made of rope or cord net (Adj): amount remaining after deductions
pick (N) pick (V)	pick (N): a kind of tool pick (V): to choose

Subgroup 2:

These words have the same spelling, but different stress. The stress
changes for the noun and verb forms of these words. Examples:

homographs*	differences
áddress (N) addréss (V)	address (N): where one lives address (V): to give a speech; to write an address
cómpress (N) compréss (V)	compress (N): medicine put on a cloth and worn next to the skin compress (V): press together
éxport (N) expórt (V)	export (N): something that is exported export (V): to send a product outside a country (to be sold)
ínsult (N) insúlt (V)	ínsult (N): insulting action or words insúlt (V): to say or do something which is offensive or rude
cónvert (N) convért (Adj)	convert (N): someone who has changed from one group (for example, a religion) to another convert (V): to change from one form to another
désert (N) desért (V)	desert (N): dry place desert (V): abandon

There are also homographs with the same spelling, but different
pronunciations and meanings. Here are a few examples:

read (present tense--pronounced [ ríyd ] /
read (past tense--pronounced [ red ]

lead (verb--pronounced [ líyd ] /
lead (noun [Pb]--pronounced [ led ]

do (noun [music]--pronounced [ dóu ] /
do (verb--pronounced [ dúw ]

21) Phraseology as a branch, + examples: phraseological unit, idiom and free word combination, difference between them.

Phraseology. Principals of classification of phraseological units.
Lexicology – is that branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of words. Lexicology studies meaning and making words, their ways and manners, where they come from, their appearance in the language. As a branch of linguistics, lexicology has four subbranches: 1. semantics or semasiology; 2. etymology; 3. phraseology; 4. lexicography. Phraseology – subbranch, which studies sat expressions and stock phrases. Phraseology is a new linguistics science. Its basic principles were given by academician Vinogradov in the Russian language, which may be also taken in English language. Phraseological expressions may be divided into: 1. ph. combinations; 2. ph. unities; 3. ph. phusions and idioms. Ph. combination (to make a report, to deliver a speech, to take a look) is rather free and not strictly, stable. We may change it a little bit. It does not present a semantic unit. Elements of such expressions are, to a certain degree, independent. We may substitute one part of ph. combination by synonyms. For ex: to deliver a speech, to make a speech, to have a look, to take a look, задеть чувство гордости, затронуть чувство гордости. But these expressions are limited in their combinative power. For ex: to make a report but not to do a report, обдать холодом но не обдать восхищением. Ph. unities (to play the first fiddle, to take the bull by his horns, to skate on thin ice = to risk. In ph. unities, the meaning of the words whole expression differs from the meaning of the words of the group, because it has the figurative meaning. In ph. unities, we may have a homonym. Here we cannot substitute the elements and we cannot change them. Thought it is very difficult, but we can get the meaning of the whole expression. For ex: положить зубы на полку = голодать. Ph. phusions and idioms present the most stable and very complicated relations between the elements. For ex: to show the white feather = струсить, to pull one’s leg = насмехаться, to get a bird = уволить. Ph. phusions form a semantic unit and usually they are equivalents to a word. For ex: to pull one’s leg = to mock. The meaning of an idiom doesn’t grow out of the meanings of the words it consists of. Not a single element may be replaced. Idioms can’t be separated from the point of the syntax. Idioms have no homonyms. It’s necessary to look up the meaning of idioms in the dictionary, otherwise it is impossible to understand them or we must know the history of phusions. Idioms may be taken from different spheres of human activity –history, literature, mythology. Idioms taken from history reflect customs of England. For ex: 1. white elephant = обременительное имущество. A king of England presented a white elephant to that member of the court, whom he wanted to ruin. 2. to carry one’s heart upon one’s sleeve – выставить свои чувства. This expression came from middle ages. The knights had the custom to wear the tokens of their ladies on their sleeves. 3. to ride the high horse = важничать. This expression also came from middle ages, when the distinguished knight rode on high horses. 4. Idioms from literature: to be born with a silver spoon in the mouth = родиться счастливым (from Galthworthy- to “Let”, little John). We also distinguished international idioms, when one and the same notion is expressed by one word in different languages (to burn boat – жечь лодки); when one and the same notion is expressed differently in different languages (to wash dirty linen in public – выносить сор из избы)

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